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THE NEW KOREA 


Books by Alleyne Ireland 


Mr, Ireland, one of the foremost living author- 

ities on government, is particularly well known 

for his works on Colonial Administration. 
“‘Nothing in the English language in the 
same field can compare with them for monu- 


mental] fullness of design and execution.” 
—The Springfield Republican. 


Democracy and the Human Equation 


Mr. Ireland earnestly considers the problem of 
making Government responsive to the needs of 
modern civilization. 
“‘Every book like this which is sincere and 
honestly thought out is of value to all who 
are thinking at all upon the great problems 
of today.” — The Boston Post. 


An Adventure with a Genius 
Recollections of Joseph Pulitzer. 


“‘One of the most graphic portraits of a man 
that could be created.” 
— The Boston Evening Transcript. 


“The book holds its readers like a vise and 
haunts them like a vision.’ — Life. 


v 
FEB 17 i927 


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THE 
NEW KOREA 


ALLEYNE IRELAND, r-rcs., 


Author of “(Democracy and the Human Equation,” 
“‘An Adventure with a Genius,”’ etc. 





NEW YORK 
EK. P. DUTTON & COMPANY 


681 Firra AVENUE 


Copyright, 1926 
By E. P. DUTTON & COMPANY 





All rights reserved 


Printed in the United States of America 


PREFACE 


About twenty years ago I published three 
volumes ‘dealing with colonial administration in 
the Far East. They related to British rule in 
Burma, the Federated Malay States, the Straits 
Settlements, Sarawak, British North Borneo, 
and Hong Kong, American rule in the Philip- 
pines, Dutch rule in Java, and French rule in 
Indo-China. 

It had been my intention to include an account 
of Japanese rule in Formosa; but by the time I 
had turned back east after two years of westerly 
travel the Russo-Japanese war was in progress, 
and a visit to Formosa was out of the question. 
When, in 1922, the opportunity presented itself 
to spend the greater part of the year in the Far 
Fast, I decided that a volume describing Japan- 
ese administration in Korea would make a more 
interesting contribution to the study of Govern- 
ment than a similar work about Formosa. 

Formosa is merely one example among many 
of a civilized race ruling a people in a very low 
stage of development. Korea, on the other hand, 
presents the rare spectacle of one civilized race 
ruling another civilized race. It is true that at 

v 


vi PREFACE 


the time Japan annexed Korea, in 1910, the 
actual conditions of life in the Peninsula were 
extremely bad. This was not due, however, to 
any lack of inherent intelligence and ability in 
the Korean race, but to the stupidity and corrup- 
tion which for five hundred years had, almost 
continuously, characterized the government of 
the Korean dynasty, and to the existence during 
that period of a royal court which maintained 
throughout Korea a system of licensed cruelty 
and corruption. 

Such was the misrule under which the Koreans 
had suffered for generation after generation that 
all incentive to industry, thrift, and social prog- 
ress had been destroyed, because none of the com- 
mon people had been allowed to enjoy the fruits 
of their own efforts. 

The title of the present volume gives the key 
to its contents. What I have attempted is to 
present in some detail the aims, the methods, and 
the results of Japanese administration in Korea. 
Of the right of the Koreans to govern them- 
selves, of the right of the Japanese to govern 
them I have said but little, for the subject has 
been discussed exhaustively by other writers, 
both from the point of view of the Korean na- 
tionalists and from that of the Japanese imperi- 
alists, and is in any case of such a nature that a 
judgment one way or the other can reflect noth- 
ing but the individual temperament of the judge. 


PREFACE vii 


There is already in existence a voluminous lit- 
erature relating to Korea, much of it of great 
interest and importance. Most of it, however, 
falls under one of two heads—writing descriptive 
of the country and of the people, or polemical 
writing in which Japanese administration in 
Korea is attacked or eulogized on the basis of 
material specially selected to serve one purpose 
or the other. 

To the English-reading public there is avail- 
able at present only one source of statistically- 
based information covering every phase of 
Japanese rule in Korea—the Annual Report 
on Reforms and Progress in Chosen, compiled 
and published by the Government-General. Al- 
though these reports contain a great deal of 
valuable comment and a considerable body of 
statistical data, a careful perusal of the volumes 
covering the past ten years convinced me that a 
work such as I had in mind could not be written 
from that material alone. It was clear that a 
good deal of the matter appearing in the reports 
had been condensed from departmental reports 
in which various subjects had been treated in full 
detail. Both as to data and to comment a large 
proportion of the contents of the present volume 
is taken from translations of official material 
which has not hitherto been accessible in English. 

Where I have expressed my own opinion of 
Japanese administration in Korea, it has been 


viii PREFACE 


derived from the consideration of what I saw in 
the country, what I have read about it in official 
and in unofficial publications, and from discus- 
sions with persons—Japanese, Korean, and for- 
eign—who were living in the Peninsula at the 
time of my visit. 

ALLEYNE JRELAND. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 
PREPACK i rediiet ia \raalite WIN M gt MOI alah Pipl Kcielicl witty foul tae ot hg) Mm Ot 
CHAPTER 
TP LANTRODUCTORY (ca seuitecdnn Sih Pera re hate stat MRO Vi ek 
Korea’s Position in Far Eastern Affairs, 1; Annexation by 
Japan, 1; Imperialism and Nationalism Contrasted, 2; 
Self-rule and Dependent Rule Contrasted, 10; Japanese 
Rule in Korea Characterised, 17. 
I. DESCRIPTIVE AND HisTorIcaL. . SE Aaa RE Rod NEM Es 
Descriptive, 18; Population, 23; Railways, 27; Roads, 
31; Streets, 32; Maritime Transportation, 34; Postal, 
Telegraph, and Telephone Communications, 34; His- 
torical, 36. 
TIESSUMMABY Seay Cube ey phn alum etiam taveinee eRe! ily yt Oe 


Relations between Japan and Korea, 62; Governor- 
General Saito Appointed, 69; New Spirit Introduced in 
Administration, 70; Material Progress, 73; Reorganiza- 
tion of Government, 77; General Progress of the 
Country, 80. 


IV. GovERNMENT ORGANIZATION . 2. « « «© «© « « 83 


J. Tat GOVERNMENT-GENERAL . 2. «© © ce © e« « 83 


Provincial Government . . 88 
The Present Organization of the Government of Korea. . 96 
The Civil Service . . . . 104 


Appointment and Salary, 104; Pensions, 105 


V. GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION. 


II. Locat ADMINISTRATION . . y . 108 
Introductory, 108; Formation of Leal Caetis 114; 
Inspection of Local Administration, 120; Local Finance, 
121; Municipalities, 126; Villages, 128; School Associa- 
tions for Japanese, 131; District Educational Bodies for 
Koreans, 133; Water-utilization Associations, 135. 

1x 


x CONTENTS 


CHAPTER PAGE 
VI. Toe Laws anp Courts or Korea. ... . . 187 
Historical, 137; The Sources of Law in Korea, 143; Civil 


Procedure, 145; Criminal Procedure: The Judiciary, 150; 
Courts of Law, 152. 


VEL }PoLici AND WPRIBSONS occ ec aera Dee ee a ae oe 


I. Potice ADMINISTRATION . . 154 
Historical, 154; After the Anrlexntidi 158; A, 
Police Jurisdiction, 160; Cost of the Police Force, 161. 


II. Prison ADMINISTRATION . . . : fy Nose aL OS 


Control and Administration of, 163; puna of prisoners, 
164; First Offenders, 165; Recidivism, 165; Pardons, 166; 
Prisoners’ Labor, 167; Morbidity and Mortality of 
Prisoners, 167. 


VIII. GovernMEeNT FINANCE . . . . 169 


Historical, 169; Subsequent to the Pees oa of 1910, 
173; Sources of Government Revenue, 175; Monopolies 
and other Government Undertakings, 178; Lumber Under- 
taking Station, 179; Objects of Government Expendi- 
ture, 181; The Korean National Debt, 184. 


IX. Epucation ... . 188 


Principles of, 188; Objects of, 190: Bee for Guida 
of Teachers, 190; Historical Development, 191; Present 
State of the Educational System, 197; The School Cur- 
riculum, 204; Salaries of Teachers, 205; Religion in the 
Schools, 206; Educational Finance, 208. 


X. Mepican, SANITARY, AND SociAL SERVICE .. . 212 

Historical, 212; Epidemic Diseases, 217; General Causes 
of Death, 218; Sanitary Equipment, 219; Expansion of 
Medical Organs, 222; The Central Health Society, 223; 
Hygienic Inspection, 223; Bacteriological Service, 224; 
Opium Control, 224; Relief Work for Lepers, 226; 
Hospitals, 227; The Severance Union Medical College, 
228; Health Practitioners, 230; Vital Statistics, 231; 
Social Service, 231. 


XI. Tot Economic DEVELOPMENT oF KorEA. .. . 237 
I. AGRICULTURE Ares . 227 


Historical, 237; Yield of Prineoel Cae 249. Vale of 
Agricultural Products, 243; Sericulture, 244; Land 


CONTENTS xi 


CHAPTER PAGE 
Tenure, 246; Financing the Farmer, 249; Official 
Encouragement of Agriculture, 251; Irrigation, 254; 
Agricultural Labor, 256. 


XII. Economic DEVELOPMENT or Korza. ..... . 260 
II. Forestry, Fisoery, AND MINING . .... . . 260 
Forestry .. 260 


Historical, 260; Condition of the Forests, 262; Affores- 
tation, 264. 

Fishery . . 266 
Experiments in APesithts Products, 269; Development of 
the Fishing Industry, 270; Economic Progress of the 
Fishing Industry, 272. 


Mining . 273 
Historical, 273; poe State og the. Mining Tadastry 
275. 
XIII. Economic DEVELOPMENT oF KorEA .... . 278 
III. Commerce, MANUFACTURES, AND BANKING. . . . 278 
Currency, 278; Economic ACRE Re 282. 
Commerce . . 283 


The Foreign ade a Kora 983; O Disthiitions of For- 
eign Trade, 285; Gold and Silver Bullion, 285; General 
Character of the Export Trade, 287; General Character 
of the Import at 289, 
Manufactures . . ae ee ee eae meee CaO 
Banking. . 294 
Historical, 204: Banking Biatistics) 299; “The Bank of 
Chosen, 300; The Chosen Industrial Bank, 302; Ordi- 
nary Banks, 302; People’s Banking Associations, 302; 
The Oriental Development Company, 303; Mutual 
Credit Associations (Mujin-Ko), 304. 


APPENDICES: 

Appendix A. Treaty of Annexation. . . te pt UL 
Appendix B. Imperial Rescript on Ainexaton ess 81 8 
Appendix C. The Late Korean Emperor’s Rescript on 


Cession of Sovereignty . 315 
Appendix D. Imperial Rescript Concerning the Reorgani- 

zation of the Government-General of 

Chosen (3715 Pt Ua a RR le One 


xii 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 
Appendix E. Governor-General’s Instruction to High Offi- 
cials Concerning Administrative Re- 


forms .. . 319 

Appendix F. Governor-General’s Proclamation to the Peo- 
ple of Chosen. . 322 

Appendix G. Governor-General’s Address ‘to ‘Provincial 
Governors. . . 325 

Appendix H. Administrative Sanerintendentis s Instruc- 
tions to Provincial Governors . . . . 328 
Appendix I. Rulesfor Teachers. . . . .-.. . . 887 
INDEX . . IKEA RT be MIRED MR sel eA cs 
GEOGRAPHICAL ‘Piacn Namus aE yeah 8 354 


Map or Korea (CHOSEN) . ... , mW acing Page 354 


THE NEW KOREA 


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THE NEW KOREA 


CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTORY, 


Korea is destined to occupy a position of con- 
stantly increasing importance with reference to 
the general problem of the Far East. Her geo- 
graphical situation predetermines for her a 
future indissolubly linked with that of China, of 
Asiatic Russia, and of Japan, with two of which 
she has land frontiers, and from the third is sep- 
arated only by a narrow strait. It is impossible 
to foresee any political, social, or economic devel- 
opments in northeastern Asia in which Korea 
will not fill a rdle as significant as that of Turkey 
in respect of the Near East, of Kgypt in respect 
of the British Empire, or of the Panama Canal 
Zone in respect of the United States. 

The annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910 
made waste paper out of bales of laboriously 
compiled reports and of ingenious predictions 


2 THE NEW KOREA 


about Far Eastern affairs. It reflected, in brief, 
the determination of Japan to forestall any at- 
tempt which might be contemplated by China to 
reassert, and to make active, its former suzerainty 
over Korea, or on the part of Russia to secure in 
the Korean Peninsula a position of such domi- 
nance as would create the temptation, and fur- 
nish the instrument, to take the control of the 
country out of the hands of its weak, incompe- 
tent, and corrupt rulers. 

Looking forward from 1910, one thing was clear 
where many things were obscure, namely that 
Japan, having decided to make Korea part of 
her Empire, would deem the permanence of her 
occupation to be a major element of her national 
policy, to be held intact, at whatever cost, against 
internal revolt or foreign intrigue. 

In the field of international policy the Japan- 
ese annexation of Korea is perfectly suited to 
serve as a demarcating issue between two schools 
of political conviction—the imperialist and the 
nationalist—and according to whether the reader 
belongs to one or to the other of these schools, so 
will he convince himself that Japan has the 
“right” to rule Korea, or that the Koreans have 
a “right” to independent nationhood. 

The common employment of the word “right” 
in this connection has done much to befog the 
actual matter in controversy between the imperi~ 
alists and the nationalists, since the “rightness” 


INTRODUCTORY. 3 


of either doctrine when applied to a particular 
case can only be measured with reference to the 
particular circumstances. 

The most extreme imperialist would balk at 
the suggestion that the United States should, on 
account of its great power and of its advanced 
social development, annex every backward and 
undeveloped country south of the Rio Grande. 
The most extreme nationalist would ridicule the 
idea that the “right” of the Australian aborigi- 
nes to self-determination justified an effort to 
emancipate the island-continent from white rule. 
The pinnacle of absurdity would be reached if 
anyone should start a movement to restore the 
control of the North American Continent to the 
Indian tribes. Grotesque as these instances ap- 
pear when viewed from the practical standpoint, 
they suffice to expose the fallacy of basing either 
an imperialist or a nationalist policy upon a prin- 
ciple of abstract right. 

It is my purpose to examine Japanese rule in 
Korea as a concrete example of colonial admin- 
istration, without reference to the legal or moral 
sanctions upon which it rests. The reasons for 
thus limiting the inquiry will be obvious to all 
serious students. I state them here in the hope 
that they will be accepted as valid by the general 
reader. 

The annexation of weak countries by strong 
countries is a phenomenon which has persisted 


4 THE NEW KOREA 


since the beginning of recorded time; practically 
every strong nation has practiced the habit. 

The arguments for and against such a pro- 
cedure have been stated and re-stated thousands 
of times in every country, and have been ex- 
pressed in almost every language. They are 
familiar to, or accessible to, every person who 
will read this volume. I have nothing to add to 
them. A discussion of the moral, ethical, legal, 
political, social, and economic problems raised by 
an act of annexation, as such, is irrelevant to a 
presentation of the facts descriptive of a working 
system of colonial government, since the charac- 
ter of an administration is what it is, and can be 
fairly judged only on the basis of the data of 
its operation. 

To combine a description of a colonial govern; 
ment with an essay on the moral quality of the 
imperialist principle would be to invite confusion 
of thought. Thus, in any given case, if the admin- 
istration of an imperial government is found to 
be bad in fact, this badness will be used by 
nationalists as an argument against imperialism, 
whereas if bad administration is found in a popu- 
lar government, nationalists will not tolerate any 
use of this badness as an argument against popu- 
lar rule. 

Conversely, with reference to good adminis- 
tration; if nationalists find that it exists in fact 
under a system of popular self-government, they 


INTRODUCTORY 5 


will welcome the finding as a justification of that 
system; but if good administration is found in an 
imperial dependency, nationalists will not allow 
the finding to stand to the credit of the imperial- 
ist system; they will then shift the issue from the 
quality of the administration to the quality of the 
sanctions from which the government derives its 
authority. 

In a word, to the nationalists good government 
ws good government if it is self-government, and 
even bad government is good government if it is 
self-government—in the first case because both 
good government and self-government are good; 
in the second case because, under self-govern- 
ment, bad government will certainly lead to a 
demand for, and to the instituting of, good gov- 
ernment. ‘Thus, so runs the argument, bad self- 
government is merely a passing phase in the evo- 
lution of good self-government. 

This attitude of the nationalists is perfectly 
logical so far as it affects their desire for nation- 
hood, since it enables them to use bad colonial 
administration as an argument in support of an 
independence agitation, and at the same time 
undercuts the position of those imperialists who 
seek to justify colonial rule by appealing to the 
visible evidences of what good colonial adminis- 
tration can do for the safety, health, cultural 
advancement, and prosperity of a colonial 
domain. 


6 THE NEW KOREA 


It is clear, then, that with reference to an 
accepted group of facts, a totally different evalu- 
ation will be made by a nationalist and by an 
imperialist. Japanese rule in Korea, and the 
opposition to it on the part of the Korean nation- 
alists, furnish an excellent illustration of the 
point. The Japanese refer with pride to their 
road-building, to their great extension of educa- 
tional facilities, to their effective protection of 
life and property throughout a country but re- 
cently overrun by bandits, to their rapid develop- 
ment of agriculture, trade and industry, to their 
technical training schools, to their scientific 
experiment stations which serve the farmer, the 
fisherman, the stock-breeder, and the manufac- 
turer, to the enormous increase during the past 
fifteen years in every branch of production, with 
its connotation of increased employment for 
Koreans, to the constantly mounting number of 
Koreans appointed to the Government service. 

The foregoing facts cannot be gainsaid, as will 
be proved by the data contained in subsequent 
chapters. But the Korean nationalists attribute 
to them a sinister significance. The roads, they 
say, are built solely for the purpose of facilitat- 
ing the movement of Japanese troops; the educa- 
tional system is nothing more than an ingenious 
scheme for destroying Korean nationality; the 
protection of life and property is merely an ex- 
cuse for maintaining a large Japanese police 


INTRODUCTORY 7 


force; the economic development of the country 
is sumply a device for swelling the profits of 
Japanese capitalists; the technical schools and 
the scientific bureaus have no other aim than to 
make Japanese rule profitable to the Japanese; 
the employment of Koreans in the Government 
service is an insidious form of bribery calculated 
to secure support for the Japanese occupation 
of the country. 

The situation thus created is familiar to all 
students of colonial government. If the local 
administration builds roads, erects schools, and 
so on, it is wrong, because the motive is base; if 
it fails to do these things it is wrong, because it 
is the obvious duty of an imperial ruler to confer 
such benefits upon a dependency. So also in 
relation to developing the resources of a depend- 
ency; if the sovereign power invests money in the 
colony, it is wrong because all it amounts to is 
capitalist exploitation; if it does not invest 
money in the colony, it is wrong because the 
failure to do so reflects a determination to keep 
the people poor and weak in the interest of an 
easy domination; if it employs natives in the 
government service it is wrong because such a 
policy tends to weaken nationalist sentiment; if 
it fails to do so it is wrong because such a course 
discloses the purpose of making the colony the 
happy hunting ground of imperial officials. 

To all colonial governors this is an old story. 


8 THE NEW KOREA 


All sincere and humane colonial governors—and 
none is more worthy of such a description than 
is Viscount Saito, Governor-General of Korea 
since 1919—are compelled to close their ears to 
the mutually destructive criticisms to which I 
have alluded, and must content themselves with 
carrying out from day to day measures designed 
to improve the general conditions of their de- 
pendencies. 

The bulk of the present volume is devoted to 
a description of the administrative system of the 
Japanese in Korea, and to a statistical account 
of its results. The author feels it incumbent 
upon him to furnish his readers with a brief state- 
ment of the point of view from which he has 
approached his task. 

During the past forty years he has lived about 
half the time in self-governing countries—Eng- 
land, the United States, Canada, Australia, 
Japan, France, Germany, and Denmark—and 
the other half in colonial dependencies—India, 
the British West Indies, the French West 
Indies, British and Dutch Malaya, French Indo- 
China, British Borneo, the Philippine Islands, 
and in a few scattered dependencies of various 
powers. 

This experience has left him without any trace 
of prejudice in respect of forms of government, 
for he has seen government wisely and honestly 
administered under every form, and stupidly and 


INTRODUCTORY 9 


dishonestly administered under every form; he 
has seen freedom cherished under a monarchy 
and destroyed under a republic, and vice versa; 
he has seen justice dispensed with an even hand 
under popular rule and under autocratic rule; 
he has seen judicial decisions bought and sold in 
self-governing countries and in the dependencies 
of imperial powers. In each class of territory 
he has seen, living side by side, persons content 
with their government (whilst favoring reforms 
in this or in that particular) and persons who are 
so discontented with the same government that 
nothing short of its complete destruction appears 
to offer an adequate guaranty of desired reforms. 

When the strongly dissatisfied group exists in 
a sovereign state, its members become socialists 
of one kind or another, or communists, or syn- 
dicalists, or fascists, or anarchists, according to 
their individual temperaments; when the group 
exists in a dependency, its members create a 
party aiming at the achievement of independence 
from the sovereign state. 

It is one of the most curious matters forced 
upon the attention of a student of comparative 
government that the chief object of the national- 
ist party in a dependency should be to obtain the 
status of an independent sovereign nation, since 
the obvious fact is that in most of the countries 
which already exist as sovereign states there are 
to be observed all the evil conditions for which 


10 THE NEW KOREA 


a colonial independence party deems independ- 
ent sovereignty to be the unfailing panacea. 

If the opponents of imperially imposed rule 
could point to the self-ruled countries and say: 
“In these countries there are justice, toleration, 
honest and efficient administration, social equal- 
ity, adequate protection of life and property, 
equal economic opportunity, and freedom from 
the exploitation of the weak by the strong, and 
of the poor by the rich,” the argument against 
imperialism would rest upon solid foundations. 
But the anti-imperialists cannot say with truth 
that the kind of dispensation described above 
exists in any marked degree in the general cate- 
gory of self-ruled states; nor can they say with 
truth that, in whatever degree it does exist any- 
where, this degree is higher in self-ruled coun- 
tries than it is in imperial dependencies. 

No informed person would be prepared to 
maintain that Spain, Mexico, the Central Amer- 
ican Republics, Russia, Rumania, and Bulgaria 
—all of them self-governing, independent states 
—enjoy asuperior general social condition, or are 
better administered, than Burma, Java, British 
Guiana, the Federated Malay States, Korea, and 
the Philippine Islands—all of them ruled as 
dependencies. 

Self-rule and dependent rule each have in- 
herent in them the possibility of misrule. In self- 
ruled countries the danger lies in the dishonesty 


' INTRODUCTORY 11 


and incompetence of which partisan politics and 
political machinery are the supple instruments 
and the staunch defenders. As between the good 
of the country and the good of the party, the 
latter is usually—by the liberal use of patronage, 
and by the unrestrained employment of sophisti- 
cal oratory—accorded in practice the leading 
position. 

In dependencies the threat to good govern- 
ment comes from another source—the stupidity, 
the incompetence, or the arrogance of colonial 
officials. In the matter of corruption I am con- 
vinced beyond all doubt that, allowing for an 
occasional exception, the government of self- 
ruled countries is much more corrupt than that 
of colonial dependencies, and that, in the latter, 
malversation in public office is of very rare oc- 
currence. In the twenty-five years during which 
I have kept in touch with the dependencies con- 
trolled by the India Office and by the Colonial 
Office in London I have not heard of a dozen 
cases of graft on the part of non-native govern- 
ment officials above the rank of mere clerks. 

There exists, of course, in each type of govern- 
ment an obligation to govern well. This respon- 
sibility is rooted in morals, and where moral 
considerations do not operate with sufficient force 
to compel the ruling authority to govern well, 
the promptings of expediency will usually suffice 


12 THE NEW KOREA 


to dip the seale on the side of reasonably humane 
and efficient administration. 

It seems to me that these two factors, morality 
and expediency, act with greater effectiveness in 
colonial dependencies than in self-governing 
countries, and this chiefly for two reasons. In 
self-governing countries the moral responsibilty 
is split up among thousands, or millions of 
voters; in dependencies it is centered in a single 
person, the Governor-General, the Governor, the 
Chief Commissioner, or whatever the title may 
be. In the former case every voter can shift the 
blame for bad government on to some one else’s 
shoulders; each political party can shift it on to 
the shoulders of the other party, one branch of a 
legislature can make a gift of it to the other; 
both branches can leave it on the doorstep of the 
Chief Executive; the Chief Executive can hand 
it back to the voters with the comment that he 
is but the servant of the people, that they had 
demanded certain legislation, certain administra- 
tive measures, and that he had carried out their 
wishes; finally, the Chief Executive and the 
Legislature can combine to lay the blame upon 
incompetent or corrupt officials, who will pres- 
ently be disciplined, reformed, dismissed, or de- 
nied re-election, as the case may be. 

In a dependency the situation is totally differ- 
ent. A Colonial Governor, vis-a-vis his colony 
and his Colonial Office in the home country, occu- 


INTRODUCTORY 13 


pies a position analogous to that of a ship’s 
captain vis-a-vis his ship and his owners. He is 
directly responsible for the conduct of affairs; he 
takes the credit for success, he must accept the 
penalties of failure; he can never plead an alibi. 

Furthermore, the Colonial Governor looks for 
his advancement to the distant authority of a 
Secretary of State at the national capital. Pro- 
motion and other rewards will depend upon the 
way in which he administers his charge. He is 
little likely to earn them if, from preventable 
causes, his territory fails to advance in its health, 
prosperity, and general social condition; he is 
almost certain to miss them if, in consequence of 
harsh and incompetent administration, the people 
rise in revolt against his rule, or sink into the 
apathy and sloth which are the assured products 
of prolonged misgovernment. Briefly, the suc- 
cess of his rule will be the measure of his personal 
success. | 

Since he is directly responsible for the conduct 
of his subordinates, and for the appointment of 
most of them, and has in addition the power of 
promotion and dismissal, his officials have every 
incentive to earn their own advancement by ren- 
dering such service as will redound to the credit 
of the Governor. 

I do not intend to imply that a home govern- 
ment may not, even in modern times, be actuated 
by the base motive of ruthlessly exploiting a 


14 THE NEW KOREA 


colonial dependency—the earlier history of the 
Belgian Congo is a case in point—or that in 
such circumstances the administration may not 
be as bad as the motive. But such a situation is, 
year by year, falling in the scale of statistical 
expectation because, international relations being 
what they now are, the influence of publicity 
being what it now is, and party tactics in home 
countries demanding, as they now do, a diligent 
assemblage of material on which to base attacks 
on the party in power, the ventilation of grave 
abuses in colonial administration presents a very 
serious political problem to the home government 
which is responsible for them or which tolerates 
them. : 

The other important factor, which has to be 
taken into account when estimating the proba- 
bility of government being competently admin- 
istered in a dependency, is one to which recent 
political events in Europe have imparted a strik- 
ing significance. It is that as social and eco- 
nomic conditions increase in complexity under 
the combined influences traceable to industrial 
development, to the growing size of commercial 
and banking enterprises, and to the gradual sub- 
stitution of the community for the individual as 
the unit of social progress, the problems of gov- 
ernment are, day by day, becoming less amenable 
to political solutions—to legislative debate, long 
ballots, and the popular election of public officials 


INTRODUCTORY 15 


—and more clamorous of solutions dependent 
upon highly expert technical knowledge. 

The assumption that politics would be the com- 
petent and all-sufficient handmaid of social 
service was given authoritative currency through 
the propaganda associated with the American 
War of Independence, the French Revolution, 
and the fight for Parliamentary Reform in Eng- 
land. ‘These movements were spread over a 
period of about a century and a quarter, roughly 
from 1760 to 1890, a period during which public 
sentiment was strongly averse to the idea of 
government regulation, and was totally blind to 
the possibility that Government might become, 
as it has since become, not only the trustee of 
social progress but also its most powerful instru- 
ment. What these revolutionary and reform 
movements were chiefly concerned with was, in 
fact, settling what Government should not do to 
people, not with what Government should do for 
people. 

It is safe, indeed, to infer that the liberal- 
minded statesmen of the eighteenth and nine- 
teenth centuries would be horrified if they could 
witness the extent to which Government today 
intrudes upon everything, and regulates almost 
everything which happens to a citizen, or is done 
by him whilst he is moving from his cradle to 
his grave. 

Whether or not Government should under- 


16 THE NEW KOREA 


take its vast business of regulation and of social 
service is a question upon which opinions may 
well differ; but the obstinate adhesion to the 
belief that politics, whose life-blood is a mixture 
of contention, intrigue, and self-interest, can and 
will furnish the spirit, the knowledge, and the 
technique essential to the effective handling of 
social and economic problems is what has brought 
parliamentary government into disrepute in 
almost every country in which it is practiced. 

The establishment of Fascism in Italy, the 
support which that principle is receiving in other 
countries, the adoption of the City-manager plan 
in the United States, the setting up, by the 
mutual consent of opposing interests, of “Czars”’ 
to administer the affairs of certain great Ameri- 
can industries (baseball and the movies, for in- 
stance), and the recent dictatorship in Spain, 
are all in their essence revolts against the open- 
to-all system of guidance and control. 

If my observation has led me to believe that in 
countries where authority ‘is vested in a small 
group of trained public officials there will, as a 
rule, be found a better administration of govern- 
ment than in countries where administration is 
subject to the influence of an uninformed and, 
ad hoc, unintelligent public, I do not from that 
belief infer that, because a country is ruled under 
a system of concentrated authority and of fixed 
responsibility, it is, therefore well governed. 


INTRODUCTORY 17 


So, with reference to Korea, there can be 
found in its history under Japanese rule in- 
stances of the abuse of power, of official incom- 
petence, to some extent of corruption; but 
whether or not Korea has on the whole been well 
governed can be determined only from a study 
of the available data. From such a study, which 
has occupied me for more than three years, and 
of which the results are presented in this volume, 
I have formed the opinion that Korea is today 
infinitely better governed than it ever was under 
its own native rulers, that it is better governed 
than most self-governing countries, that it is as 
well governed as any of the British, American, 
French, Dutch, and Portuguese dependencies 
which I have visited, and is better governed than 
most of them, having in view as well the cultural 
and economic development of the people as the 
technique of administration. 


CHAPTER II 
DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 


Descriptive— 

Korea* is a peninsula extending almost 
due south from Manchuria. Its area is ap- 
proximately 85,000 square miles; its coast-line 
is about eleven thousand miles long, and has the 
peculiarity that on the west and south it is 
deeply indented and, for the most part, fringed 
with islands, whereas the east coast presents an 
almost unbroken front and has very few islands 
adjacent to it. 

On the north, Korea is bounded by Manchuria, 
from which it is separated by the Yalu River, and 
by Asiatic Russia, which lies on the other side of © 
the Tumen River; on the east by the Sea of 
Japan; on the west by the Yellow Sea; and on 
the south by the Korea Strait. ‘The distance 
from Fusan, Korea’s southeastern port, to Moji, 
the port at the southwestern entrance of Japan’s 
Inland Sea, is only 135 miles. 


* The Japanese have adopted officially the name Chosen, by which the 
Peninsula was known in ancient times. Throughout this volume 
‘Korea’ is used, as being more familiar to the world at large. 


18 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 19 


The east coast of Korea has but two harbors 
of consequence—Seishin and Gensan—both in 
the northern sector, on the inprovement of which 
the Government-General has expended more 
than five million yen. On the south and west 
coasts, however, Korea is well supplied with good 
ports. Of these the principal one is Fusan, at 
the southeastern tip of the Peninsula. Here the 
Government has spent more than thirteen million 
yen in providing modern facilities. A steamer 
runs twice daily to and from Japan, and passen- 
gers can transfer directly on the dock to a train of 
the South Manchuria Railway. This railway en- 
ables one to travel without changing cars as far 
as Changchun in Northern Manchuria and, with 
a single change there or at Mukden, to go to 
Peking, Dairen in Southern Manchuria, or to 
make connection with the Trans-Siberian. Thus, 
one can go by rail from Fusan to any point in 
Northern Asia or in Europe which is provided 
with a railroad. 

The capital of Korea, Keijo (commonly called 
Seoul), is on the main line from Fusan, and is 
also connected by rail with the port of Jinsen 
(Chemulpo) on the west coast, and with Gensan 
on the east coast. Near the mouth of the Yalu 
is Shin-gishu, also on the South Manchuria Rail- 
way main line, which is becoming year by year an 
increasingly important depot for trade both by 
land and by sea. Other important ports on the 


20 THE NEW KOREA 


west coast are Chinnampo, which serves Heijo, 
capital of the Province of South Heian; Kunsan, 
which is connected by rail with Ko-shu, the Pro- 
vincial Capital of South Chusei; and Mokpo, 
which is the port for Kwo-shu, capital of the 
Province of North Zenra. 

Korea may be described, topographically, as a 
country of constricted plains intersected by rug- 
ged mountain ranges. Along the east coast from 
north to south the mountains thrust themselves 
almost into the sea, and I have never seen a more 
beautiful or striking region than the Diamond 
Mountains, which lie to the south of Gensan. 
The whole of the east coast, so far as I saw it, 
presents an aspect of romantic wildness, which is 
enhanced by the extraordinary coloring of the 
soil and of the fantastically shaped crags and iso- 
lated pillars of rock. The soil is of a rich terra- 
cotta color, the unplanted portions furnishing a 
rich background for the brilliant green of the 
young rice plants. The rocks and crags, which 
in some places are bare, in others clothed with 
creepers, range in color between deep purple and 
rich yellow. It would not be a difficult under- 
taking to make the east coast of Korea into one 
of the most popular tourist resorts in the Far 
Fast. 

The climate of Korea, generally speaking, 
runs to extremes both of heat and of cold. 
Spring and autumn are very short seasons, and 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 21 


the difference in temperature between day and 
night is very great, sometimes reaching 25 de- 
grees Fahrenheit in places near the Manchurian 
border. This difference is not so great in the 
south of the Peninsula, since there the climate 
is somewhat modified by the surrounding ocean. 
The cold in winter fluctuates, there being fre- 
quent short spells of mild weather, so that the 
people describe the winter climate as “three cold 
and four warm.” 

The mean annual temperature in southern 
Korea is about 55° F., in central Korea about 
52°, and on the northern border about 40°. ‘The 
fall of rain and of snow is abundant compared 
with that of Manchuria and Mongolia, but 
scanty compared with that of Japan proper, 
being from thirty to forty inches a year in most 
places, gradually decreasing in the direction 
from southeast to northwest. 

The following account of the seasons is 
abridged from Dr. J. D. Van Buskirk’s “The 
Climate of Korea, and Its Probable Effect on 
Human Efficiency,” which was printed in the 
Transactions of the Korea Branch of the Royal 
Asiatic Society, Vol. 10, 1919. 

Like the rest of the temperate zone, Korea has 
four seasons. The winter is quite cold and in 
the northern part especially is severe. In the 
north, frost occurs in September or October; 
and for about five months the mean daily tem- 


22 THE NEW KOREA 


perature is below freezing point on the Man- 
churian border. Streams are frozen over for the 
whole winter, and there are severe snow storms. 
The station at Chukochin reports temperature as 
low as 41° below freezing point, Fahrenheit. 
Seoul has over two months with the mean daily 
temperature below freezing, and, during a period 
of five years, averaged twenty-eight days a year 
below freezing point every hour of the day. 

Summer is the rainy season. There are not 
such intensely hot days as are common in the 
United States, but the heat is continuous, so that 
the summers are more trying than in places in 
the United States having the same mean tem- 
perature. The highest temperature reported by 
the Government stations is 103.2° F. from Won- 
san (Gensan), but this is exceptional. Taikyu, 
the Provincial capital of North Keisho-do has as 
a rule the hottest weather, its maximum going as 
high as 103° EF’. The coast towns in the south 
have less extreme heat, Fusan reporting a maxi- 
mum of 91.5° F. and Mokpo 95.2° F. The 
humidity of the summer is high, and this, with 
the steady heat and the rains, makes the total 
effect of the summers quite depressing. 

Spring and autumn are nearly ideal seasons in 
Korea. The winter ends and spring advances 
almost imperceptibly—no hot days followed by 
severe cold, but a gradual warming up, with 
bright sunshine, occasional rains, and for the 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 23 


most part gentle winds. There is in the southern 
part of the country, even as far north as Seoul, 
a distinct short season of rains in April. This 
furnishes an abundant supply of water to irri- 
gate the rice fields and makes this an ideal region 
for rice-farming. ‘The heat gradually grows 
more intense and the rains more heavy, and then 
summer has come. 

The autumn is comparatively warmer than 
the spring, alike sunshiny and equable. There is 
a more distinct marking of the beginning of 
autumn than of any other season. ‘The rains 
rather suddenly cease in September and there is 
a different feeling in the air. But autumn 
changes to winter so gradually that one hardly 
knows when winter begins. 


Population— 

The following data in regard to the population 
of Chosen are taken from the Annual Report on 
Administration of Chosen, 1922-1923 compiled 
by the Government-General, and issued in De- 
cember 1924. 

Under the old Korean Government no census, 
strictly speaking, was ever taken, or, if at- 
tempted, it was taken solely for the purpose of 
fixing the basis of tax assessment. ‘The men in 
charge unscrupulously indulged in the vicious 
practice of falsifying their returns in order that 
they might fatten on the taxes paid by families 


24 THE NEW KOREA 


which they had omitted to record in the official 
registers. ‘The statistics compiled in this way 
were, of course, absolutely worthless. (When 
Japan established its protectorate, in 1906, the 
Japanese police adviser to the Korean Govern- 
ment found this evil very detrimental to the 
smooth working of civil administration, and 
therefore caused instructions to be sent to each 
provincial police office to make an honest count 
of the entire population on a given date. This 
was, one may say, the first real census ever taken 
in Korea. As there were many difficulties to be 
overcome the count could not be made as accu- 
rately as was desired, but the results showed that 
the population had been very much underesti- 
mated. Hitherto the population had been put at 
something over five million; the new count 
proved it to be nearly seven million. A more 
careful investigation, made after the annexation 
of 1910, placed the total population at 13,313,- 
017; and the estimated population in 1923 was 
17,626,761. Of this total the Koreans make up 
something over 17,000,000, the Japanese nearly 
400,000, all other races about 32,000. The ratio 
of females to males was 94 to 100 among 
Koreans, 88 to 100 among Japanese, and 13.7 to 
100 among foreigners. 

The following table shows the distribution of 
the population according to occupation. 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 25 


Occupation Japanese | Korean Foreign 


Agriculture, forestry, 

and stock-farming. . 38,573 | 14,738,126 5.346 14,782,045 
Fishing, and salt- 

manufacture 10,775 213,266 25 224,066 
Industries 63,999 358,205 3,517 425,721 
Commerce, and trans- 

portation 126,893 984,405 16,080 1,127,378 
Public service, and the 

professions 325,733 1,576 444,389 
Miscellaneous 410.561 4,737 435,940 
Unrecorded 177,843 848 187,222 


17,208,139 | 32,129 17,626,761 





It is thus seen that slightly more than 80 per 
cent of the entire population of Korea is depend- 
ent for its subsistence upon direct use of land. 

The exact number of Koreans living outside 
the Japanese Empire is not known, but the latest 
investigations put it at more than 1,500,000, the 
large majority of whom live in Manchuria and 
Siberia, and the remainder in China (chiefly in 
Shanghai), in the United States, Hawaii, and 
Mexico. For the protection of Koreans living 
abroad, particularly for those in neighboring 
Chinese territory, a special item was incor- 
porated in the Korean budget for 1920; and the 
Governor-General, in co-operation with the 
Japanese consulates in Manchuria, is doing his 
best for their welfare by founding schools, hos- 
pitals, and monetary organs in important places, 
by sending doctors to treat gratis the sick in 


26 THE NEW KOREA 


remoter parts, by encouraging the formation of 
Korean societies and giving them financial help, 
and by providing for the relief of poor Koreans 
in times of natural calamity. 

Moreover, as the activities, open or otherwise, 
of agitators abroad were the first cause of the 
popular unrest in Chosen at the time of the Inde- 
pendence Movement, the Japanese authorities 
saw the necessity of controlling them, as well as 
of protecting law-abiding Koreans from the in- 
trigues of the disaffected, by a more efficient 
method than had hitherto been employed. Ac- 
cordingly, the Japanese consuls at Antung, 
Mukden, Kirin, and Chientao—all in Manchuria 
—were, in 1920, charged with the duty of acting 
as secretaries of the Government-General of 
Korea. 

Little is known of the original inhabitants of 
Korea. When the Chinese statesman, Ki-tze, 
invaded the country in the twelfth century, B.C., 
he found the Peninsula occupied by cave- 
dwellers living in a state of savagery. ‘The race 
as it exists today is clearly of Mongol stock, but 
it presents points of difference from both the 
Chinese and the Japanese. The general consen- 
sus of opinion among foreign residents is that 
the Koreans are an amiable and intelligent 
people quite capable of responding to education 
and to other measures designed to foster social 
progress. I may add that neither in Korea nor 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 27 


in Japan proper did I encounter any anti- Korean 
feeling. On the contrary I met many Japanese 
who were eager to enlarge upon the admirable 
features of the early Korean culture and to ex- 
press their appreciation of the contribution which 
Koreans had made to the art, religion, and 
philosophy of Japan itself, in the centuries pre- 
ceding the accession of the Yi Dynasty, which, 
after more than five hundred years of misrule 
had reduced the Korean people to a cultural and 
economic condition deplorable in the extreme, 
and which came to an end when Japan annexed 
the country in 1910. 


Ralways— 

The first railway construction undertaken in 
Korea was a line of about 25 miles between Seoul 
and Chemulpo. A concession for this under- 
taking was secured from the Government of 
Korea by an American citizen, Mr. James R. 
Morse, in 1898. The selection of this particular 
route was due to the circumstance that the line 
would connect the capital of the country with the 
nearest deep-water port. 

Whilst the line was still under construction it 
was bought by a Japanese company which car- 
ried the undertaking through and opened the line 
to traffic in 1902. ‘The next line to be con- 
structed was that from Seoul to Fusan, a port at 
the extreme southeastern tip of the Peninsula, 


28 THE NEW KOREA 


about 135 miles from Moji, the nearest Japanese 
port. The concession for the construction and 
operation of this line was granted in 1898 to a 
Japanese syndicate which began work in 1901. 
The line was completed in 1904 and was opened 
to traffic on January 1, 1905, its length being 268 
miles. | 

The outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War in 
1904 gave a strong impetus to railway construc- 
tion, and by the end of 1905 the total mileage had 
increased to 636. In the following year the 
Japanese Government purchased the lines from 
Seoul to Fusan, and from Seoul to Chemulpo, 
and took over the two lines (Seoul-Shingishu, and 
the Masan branch line) built by the Japanese mili- 
tary engineers, thus bringing the whole railroad 
system under government control and manage- 
ment. At the time of the annexation of the 
country by Japan (1910) the management of the 
railways was assigned to the Railroad Depart- 
ment of the Government-General. 

From this time onward a steady increase has 
occurred in railroad mileage, and a great deal has 
been spent on improving the lines. Among the 
more important undertakings are to be noted the 
construction of an iron bridge, about 3000 feet 
long, across the Yalu River, connecting the 
Korean railroad system with that of the South 
Manchuria Railway Company; and the building 
of branch lines connecting the ports of Gensan 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 29 


on the east coast, Chinampo on the west coast, 
and Mokpo on the south coast with the main line 
running north and south the whole length of the 
Peninsula. Several other lines are projected as 
part of a general plan to provide Korea with an 
adequate net-work of standard-guage and light 
railroads. 

The Mauapenent of all the state-owned rail- 
ways in Korea was, in 1917, entrusted to the 
South Manchuria Railway Company—an im- 
portant and highly efficient Japanese Corpora- 
tion. The terms of the arrangement are, in brief, 
that the Government makes the plans for new 
construction and improvements, and provides the 
capital for these purposes, while the Company is 
responsible for carrying out these plans, for the 
proper maintenance of the railways, and for their 
operation. With respect to the capital advanced 
by the Government since the annexation the 
Company must pay interest on it at the rate of 
6 per cent, though the concession was made in 
1921 that for the following three years it should 
pay interest at 4 per cent instead of 6 on the 
capital advanced in and after 1921. In the man- 
agement of the railways the Company must work 
within the terms of the laws and regulations of 
the Government-General, which are, except in 
minor details, the same as those in force in Japan 
proper. 

The general features of railway development 


30 THE NEW KOREA 


during the ten years ending on March 31, 1922 
are shown in the following table: 


RatLway DEVELOPMENT IN Korea 





1912 * 1921 * 


Total amount of capital T....... . 114,720,385 | 214,906,215 
Construction and repairs {....... . 8,767,647 18,287,156 
Passenger receipts.............. . 8,820,185 13,361,903 
Hreight reeeiptat iu eee kes . 2,816,482 11,454,094 
Miscellaneous receipts........... : 180,596 3,293,689 


otal receipisi eo. .uis eo aietes vie). . 6,817,263 28,109,695 
Operating expenses............. SOD weg be 21,629,879 
Number of passengers carried... . 4,399,022 13,821,144 
Tons of freight carried.......... 1,105,362 3,331,381 
Miles of line open to traffic...... 837 1,165 


* The figures are for fiscal years, which end on March 31. 

+ Invested up to the year. 

t During the year. 

Later figures are available for some of the 
foregoing items. Thus at the end of March, 
1925, the mileage had increased to 13800, the 
number of passengers carried to 17,487,874, the 
receipts from traffic to 29,027,866, whilst the ton- 
nage of freight carried remained practically 
stationary. 

In addition to the state railways there are a 
number of short privately owned lines. At the 
time of annexation there was only one private 
line in operation, having a length of five miles. 
In 1914 the Government decided to subsidise 
such lines, on the principle of making up any 
deficit in profit below a certain percentage on the 
paid-up capital. Up to 1917 deficiencies were 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 31 


made up by subsidy to the point of 6 per cent. 
This was raised to 7 per cent in 1918, and to 
8 per cent in 1919. This policy exerted a marked 
influence on private railway construction. By 
19238 the length of such lines open to traffic had 
increased to 333 miles, whilst those under con- 
struction, or projected, totaled 1340 miles. 

During the ten years 1912-1922 the number 
of passengers carried on private railways in- 
creased from 156,523 to 1,995,259, and the ton- 
nage of freight carried from 4161 to 536,650, in- 
cluding baggage. During the same period the 
paid-up capital of these undertakings mounted 
from less than 200 thousand yen to more than 
26 million. 


Roads— 


Prior to the establishment of the Government- 
General, 1910, there were not fifty miles of good 
road in the whole country, almost all travel and 
transportation being done on narrow, deep- 
rutted tracks. In the interest of cultural and 
economic progress the Government-General laid 
out a project for constructing a net-work of 
good roads throughout the length and breadth of 
the Peninsula. The first part of the programme 
provided for the construction, over a number 
of years, of about 8000 miles of first- and second- 
class roads, the cost to be borne by the general 
revenue of the country, and of about 7000 miles 


32 THE NEW KOREA 


of third-class road, to be paid for out of local 
taxation. Of this programme there had been 
carried to completion by the end of 1923 between 
60 and 70 per cent of the proposed road-mileage 
—more than 5000 miles of first- and second-class 
roads and a little under 5000 miles of the third 
class. ) 

The classification of the roads is made accord- 
ing to the width—24 feet or more for the first 
class, not less than 18 feet for the second, and not 
less than 12 feet for the third. Of the total 
mileage now open to traffic, about 4000 miles can 
be used by automobiles. 


Streets— 


The most recent issue of the Annual Report on 
Administration of Chosen is that covering the 
year ending on March 31, 1923. It deals as 
follows with the question of street improvements. 


Towns in Chosen for the most part contain nar- 
row, dirty, and crooked streets, causing great incon- 
venience to communications and to sanitary and fire- 
brigade arrangements, and naturally hindering their 
development, so of late years much has been done for 
their improvement by straightening, grading, and 
widening existing streets, and by constructing new 
ones as circumstances required. 

Keijo (Seoul) is the capital of Chosen and quite 
different in scale and plan from other towns, so it 
was decided to conduct street improvements in it at 


_ 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 33 


national expense. Forty-three of its streets were 
selected for improvement, of which thirteen were com- 
pleted at a cost of three million yen in the eight 
years from 1911 to 1918. The most important of 
these were made from 72 to 90 feet in width and 
provided with sidewalks. Where the traffic is heaviest 
the macadamised surface is tarred. Other roads were 
made not less than 48 feet in width, thus bringing 
about an extraordinary change in both the appear- 
ance and traffic-efficiency of the city. 

The second programme takes in nine streets, the 
budget estimate for which is 3,400,000 yen spread 
over six years from the fiscal year 1919, and this is 
still in course of execution. Chosen being still in the 
first stages of modernization in many ways, it was 
highly necessary to lay down a permanent plan for 
street improvement in towns of importance and 
promise, so the Government-General incorporated in 
the budget for the fiscal years 1921 and onward an 
item for investigation regarding town-planning, and 
started work on it in four large cities—Keijo, Fusan, 
Taikyu, and Heijo. 

There are now nine towns marked out for street 
improvement, including the principal seaports and 
provincial centers. The expenditure for this is to 
be defrayed out of local revenue with some assistance 
from the national treasury, and work in each is going 
on actively as a four to seven year enterprise. 

A proper sewerage system is a very necessary aid 
to sanitation, so it was decided to carry on its estab- 
lishment side by side with street improvement. On 


this work the city of Heijo was pledged to spend 


34 THE NEW KOREA 


580,000 yen in eleven years, Keijo 1,600,000 yen in 
seven years, and Taikyu 150,000 yen in five years. 
Part of the money thus allocated is provided by the 
national treasury and part by public bodies. 


Maritime Transportation— 


In order to insure regular maritime communi- 
cation, both coastwise and foreign, the old 
Korean government found it necessary to subsi- 
dise local steamship lines. This policy was 
adopted by the Government-General at the time 
of annexation, and has been continued down to 
the present time. At the beginning of 1923 it 
was granting an annual subsidy of 1,144,371 yen, 
distributed among 126 vessels of a total tonnage 
of about 20,000. ‘The contracts under which 
these subsidies are granted prescribe the routes 
to be followed, the number of voyages to be 
made, and the time-schedule to be maintained. 
In 1928 there were eighteen routes, of which four 
connected Korea with Japan, North China, and 
Vladivostock, the remainder linking up the vari- 
ous Korean ports with each other. 


Postal, Telegraph, and Telephone Communica- 
tions— 
Prior to 1876 there was nothing in Korea 
which could be dignified by the name of a postal 
service. In that year, however, the Japanese 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 35 


Government opened a post office at Fusan, when 
the port was opened to foreign trade, and later, 
as Japanese settlers became more numerous, the 
number of post offices was gradually increased. 
At first only ordinary mail business was done; 
but as early as 1880 money orders were made 
available and a postal savings system started. 
To these services a parcel post was added in 
1900. In the meantime the Korean Government 
had, in 1896, engaged a Japanese adviser in the 
Communications Department and organized the 
post office on modern lines. An agreement was 
concluded in 1905 by which the postal service of 
Korea was placed under the charge of the Im- 
perial Japanese Government; but in the follow- 
ing year the control was transferred to the 
newly-established Residency-General. When 
Korea was annexed to Japan in 1910 a Com- 
munications Bureau was created in the Govern- 
ment-General, and to it were assigned the con- 
trol and management of all postal, telegraph, 
and telephone business. In 1923 the permanent 
staff of the communication services numbered 
nearly 11,000 employees, with several thousand 
temporary workers engaged as occasion de- 
manded. 

As illustrating the rapidly increasing use made 
of the communication services it may be noted 
that between 1910 and 1923 the number of pieces 
of ordinary mail delivered in Korea advanced 


36 THE NEW KOREA 


from 538 to 174 million, the number of parcels 
delivered from less than one million to more than 
two million and a half, the number of offices 
available for postal, telephone, or telegraph serv- 
ice from 395 to 739, and the number of telephone 
calls from less than 25 million to more than 82 
million in the year. 

There is a steadily growing resort to the Post 
Office Savings Banks. In 1910 the total amount 
deposited by Japanese was 3 million yen, and by 
Koreans 200 thousand yen; in 1922 these figures 
had grown to 17 million and 2,750,000 respec- 
tively. 

Wireless apparatus was installed in 1910 on 
the Government signal-inspecting ship, and at 
three lighthouses; but the service has not yet been 
opened to the general public. 


Historical— 

A brief account of the relations between Korea 
and Japan in modern times will suffice to give 
the reader the broad facts pertinent to a consid- 
eration of the situation as it exists today. 

In 1894 Japan declared war on China, largely 
for the purpose of settling once for all the inter- 
national status of Korea, about which there had 
existed for centuries a dispute which constantly 
threatened the peace of the Far East. During 
more than two thousand years Korea had been 
alternately independent, and under the suze- 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 37 


rainty of China, or of Japan. She had been 
repeatedly invaded from the north—by China, 
under both the Chinese and Manchu dynasties, 
by Mongols, and by nomadic tribes—and in 1592 
the Regent of Japan, Hideyoshi, attacked Korea 
with an army of 300,000 men, as part of a proj- 
ect for the conquest of China. ‘These various 
invasions and raids, together with the prevalence 
of piracy in Korean waters led the Korean au- 
thorities to adopt and to enforce with the utmost 
rigor a policy of absolute national seclusion, a 
policy which was followed for several centuries 
and was enforced with great rigor. It was 
from this circumstance that Korea became 
known throughout the world as the Hermit 
Kingdom. History has proved that this attitude 
of no-intercourse cannot be indefinitely main- 
tained. In the case of Korea the matter was 
complicated by the question of the Chinese suze- 
rainty. Was Korea a vassal state of China, or 
was she not? The answer made by Korea and 
China was at one time yes, at another time no. 
Thus, whenever it suited the purpose of the 
Koreans to claim the protection of China, the 
plea was made that the suzerain must defend the 
vassal; when, however, China sought to make its 
suzerainty effective for some purpose of her own, 
the Korean argument was that the suzerainty 
was a mere figment, the annual tribute being 
paid solely on sentimental grounds in perpetua- 


38 THE NEW KOREA 


tion of an ancient custom which had completely 
lost its practical significance. 

Conversely, when Peking saw some advantage 
to be gained by insisting on the living force of 
the suzerainty the point was made very clear to 
the Koreans; but when, as occurred from time 
to time—as, for example, when French and 
American punitive expeditions attacked Korea 
in 1866 and 1871, respectively—foreign nations 
sought redress from Korea for wrongs done to 
their citizens, China disclaimed any kind of bond 
with Korea which made her responsible for the 
latter’s acts. 

No country had more reason to be irritated by 
the posture of Korean affairs than had Japan. 
In 1875 a Japanese war-ship was fired on by a 
KKorean shore-battery without the slightest 
provocation. The Japanese at once captured the 
fort, and seized all the arms and ammunition in 
it. Tokyo decided that the occasion was favor- 
able for bringing to an end the equivocal rela- 
tionship between Korea and China. General 
Kiyotaka Kuroda was sent to Korea as Envoy 
Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, charged 
with the task of concluding a treaty between 
Japan and Korea. This compact, known as the 
Treaty of Kwangha, was signed in 1876. It 
provided for the mutual opening of ports, for 
mutual permission to trade, and for the formal 
recognition by Japan of the independence of 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 39 


Korea. It is from this date that an account of 
Japanese-Korean relations, in modern times, 
may take its departure. 

In 1880 a Japanese Legation was established 
at Seoul, and it was hoped by sober-minded 
Japanese statesmen that with direct representa- 
tion at the Korean capital the relations between 
the two countries would assume a more friendly 
tone. ‘These hopes were not destined to be ful- 
filled. There existed at the time a long-standing 
rivalry between a party headed by the King of 
Korea’s uncle, the Tai Wen Kun, and the rich 
and powerful family of the Mins, of which the 
Queen of Korea was amember. In this domestic 
quarrel China intervened on the side of the Mins, 
sending troops into the Peninsula for the pur- 
pose of suppressing a revolt started by the Tai 
Wen Kun. For years Korea was the scene of 
coups d’état and of insurrections, in the course of 
which the Japanese Legation was twice attacked 
—once in 1882 by a Korean mob aided by Korean 
soldiers, and once in 1884 by Korean and Chinese 
troops acting in co-operation. On each occasion 
the Japanese Minister, with his wife and chil- 
dren, had to seek safety in flight. 

The constant intrusion of China upon the field 
of Korean domestic affairs is what led up to the 
Chino-Japanese War of 1894-5. Japan had 
recognized the independence of Korea in 1876, 
by the Treaty of Kwangha; and there was, of 


4.0 THE NEW KOREA 


course, a reciprocal obligation on the shoulders 
of Korea to repudiate the Chinese suzerainty. 
Notwithstanding this, the Korean Government, 
in 1894, asked China to send troops to Korea to 
put down a formidable rebellion. Early in June 
the Chinese force arrived, and the Japanese im- 
mediately countered by sending a military guard 
to her Minister in Seoul, and, a little later, by 
despatching to the Peninsula a force of some 
5000 troops. The situation thus created was dif- 
ficult in the extreme. ‘The Japanese were not 
prepared to recognize the Chinese claim that 
Chinese troops were in the country as the de- 
fenders of a Chinese dependency; but they sug- 
gested that the Chinese and the Japanese should 
act together in restoring order and in initiating 
such reforms as should conduce to the future 
peace of the country. ‘This proposal was re- 
jected. In the meantime China had moved an 
army of about eight thousand troops to a point 
on the Yalu, near the Korean frontier. The 
Japanese Minister brought the matter to a head 
by delivering an ultimatum to the Korean Gov- 
ernment in respect to its failure to live up to the 
terms of the Treaty of Kwangha. This was on 
July 20th; three days later the Japanese occu- 
pied the palace and, virtually, made the King 
prisoner. 

Japan declared war on China on August Ist, 
actual fighting having taken place a few days 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 41 


earlier, both on land and at sea. The details of 
the fighting are of no interest in the present con- 
nection. Japan was completely victorious, the 
extent of her triumph being testified to by the 
terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki. So far as 
Korea was concerned, Japan carried her point, 
the recognition of the absolute independence of 
the country. 

Shortly after this the Queen of Korea was 
murdered under circumstances for which no 
terms of condemnation could be too strong. ‘The 
facts are relevant to the relations of Korea and 
Japan at the time, for the murder had a very im- 
portant influence upon the subsequent course of 
events. On October 8, 1895, a band of Korean 
and Japanese assassins, after long and careful 
preparation, entered the inner chambers of the 
Palace at Seoul and killed the Queen. Not only 
does the evidence establish it beyond doubt that 
one of the prime movers in this plot was the 
Japanese Minister at Seoul; but that evidence is 
supplied by the Japanese Judge of Preliminary 
Enquiry who investigated the murder. The 
findings of this judge make the most extraordi- 
nary reading. He describes the plot, names all 
the prisoners before him as having been con- 
cerned in it, states that its object was to murder 
the Queen, leads his conspirators to the outside 
of the palace, and continues: “‘About dawn the 
whole party entered the palace through the 


42 THE NEW KOREA 


Kwang-hwa Gate, and at once proceeded to the 
inner chambers. Notwithstanding these facts, 
there is no sufficient evidence to prove that any 
of the accused actually committed the crime 
originally meditated by them. . .”; and then 
immediately discharges all the prisoners! 

This is certainly one of the most disgraceful 
episodes in the annals of colonial rule. It is 
relieved by only one mitigating circumstance, 
namely that there is no evidence to show that any 
of the Government officials in Tokyo were con- 
cerned in the matter. 

The murder of the Queen improved the gen- 
eral aspect of affairs, from the Japanese stand- 
point, by removing a woman who had been their 
bitterest and most unscrupulous opponent, and 
by increasing the influence of the Tai Wen Kun, 
who was supple to the Japanese intentions. 

The conception undoubtedly entertained in 
Tokyo at the conclusion of the war with China 
was that, with the question of the Chinese suze- 
rainty definitely and finally disposed of, Korea, 
reformed and strengthened by Japanese aid and 
advice, would serve as an effective buffer state 
as against China or Asiatic Russia, should either 
of them attempt to use the Peninsula as a base 
for operations against Japan. It is very doubt- 
ful whether the real independence of Korea could 
have been preserved even under the most favor- 
able circumstances; and as time passed the cir- 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 43 


cumstances became, from the Japanese point of 
view, as unfavorable as could be imagined. 

A Japanese statesman called upon to defend 
the Korean policy of his country in the years 
following the Chino-Japanese War would pre- 
sent his case somewhat as follows. 

In going to war with China, Japan had thrown 
her own fate into the scales. If she should suf- 
fer defeat—and when you fight a people which 
outnumbers your own by ten to one, and whose 
territory and natural resources present an equal 
disproportion, defeat is certainly a very serious 
possibility—she was prepared to suffer the con- 
sequences. That among these would have been 
loss of territory and the payment of an indemnity 
cannot be doubted. 

If Japan secured a complete victory—as, in 
the event, she did—she expected to gather such 
fruits as she could compel her adversary to de- 
liver as the price of a treaty of peace. Among 
these fruits was the cession to Japan of the 
Chinese Peninsula of Liao-tung. Before the 
treaty was signed, however, France, Germany, 
and Russia intervened, and forbade the cession 
to Japan of any territory on the Chinese main- 
land. It was impossible for Japan to offer any 
resistance to an ultimatum with such formidable 
backing: her victorious troops were withdrawn; 
the Liao-tung Peninsula was restored to China. 

Within three years of the date on which the 


AA, THE NEW KOREA 


principle of an inviolate Chinese mainland had 
been used as the pretext for forcing Japan out 
of Liao-tung, the three defenders of China 
against Japanese “aggression” were all in com- 
fortable occupation of various parts of the 
“inviolate” Chinese mainland—Germany in 
Kiaochow, on a 99 years’ lease; France in 
Kwangchouwan, on a 99 years’ lease; and, as a 
crowning triumph of international cynicism, 
Russia, on a 25 years’ lease of the very Liao- 
tung Peninsula from which she had been chiefly 
instrumental in ejecting Japan. 

Although Great Britain had refused to take 
any part in the coercion of Japan, her conception 
of her own national interest led her to adopt the 
policy of occupying Chinese territory on lease. 
In the south she secured a 99 years’ lease of 370 
‘square miles on the mainland opposite Hong 
‘Kong, as an offset to the French lease of Kwang- 
chouwan; in the north she leased the territory of: 
W ei-hai-wei, 285 square miles, for so long a time 
as Russia should remain in possession of Port 
Arthur. 

In what sense was Japan to interpret these 
manceuvres? Was it possible for her to see in 
them anything but a determination on the part 
of the great European powers to prescribe for 
and to enforce upon Japan a rule of conduct 
totally different from that by which they them- 
selves would be bound; and which, if Japan 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL AB 


should subscribe to it, would deprive her not only 
of every advantage attached to her geographical 
situation off the coast of Asia, but also of every 
further advantage which she might legitimately 
(according to the international code of ethics 
hitherto in force) expect to derive from her rapid 
development, from her strong and unifying sen- 
timent of nationality, from her tireless industry, 
and from her heroic military qualities? 

Was Japan, in brief, to accept the restrictions 
of a self-denying ordinance at the very moment 
when England had reached the climax of her 
territorial acquisitions in every quarter of the 
globe, when Russia and Germany were fortifying 
themselves on Chinese soil almost within sight of 
the Japanese coast, when France was reforming 
her administration, strengthening her garrison, 
and extending her control in Indo-China, when 
the United States had recently taken possession 
of the Philippine Islands? 

To have yielded to such a preposterous demand 
would have constituted a betrayal of the Japan- 
ese nation in which no reputable statesman could 
conceivably have become an accomplice, since so 
to yield would have earned for the persons 
responsible the just execration of their own 
nationals and the just contempt of all men who 
esteem patriotism to be a virtue. 

Thus, a hypothetical Japanese statesman. 
For my own part I am convinced that whatever 


46 THE NEW KOREA 


chance there had ever been of Korea attaining 
independent nationhood, was destroyed when 
Germany, France, and Russia deprived Japan 
of the fruits of her victory over China, took those 
very fruits for themselves, and thus taught Japan 
the bitter lesson that if she wished to obtain a 
valid guaranty for her future security, to present 
to the world a valid sanction for her foreign 
policy, she must develop her own military 
strength. 

This Japan proceeded to do. Prior to the 
Chino-Japanese War, Japan’s expenditure on 
her army had, for a number of years, averaged 
less than seven million dollars; in 1903 the army 
estimates exceeded 25 million dollars. At the 
outbreak of the Chino-Japanese War Japan’s 
navy consisted of about fifty vessels of a total 
tonnage of less than 75,000; at the outbreak of 
the Russo-Japanese War, 1904, the number of 
vessels had increased to 160, the tonnage to ap- 
proximately 800,000. | 

I was in the Far East during the years 1902-4. 
Everyone with whom I discussed the matter, 
from Lahore to Wei-hai-wei, was confident that 
war between Japan and Russia was inevitable 
unless one or the other of two highly improbable 
contingencies should arise—one that Japan 
should decide to acquiesce in Russia’s obvious in- 
tention of making herself the dominating power 
in Korea; the other that Russia should reverse 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 4:7 


her historic policy of thrusting southward from 
the Trans-Siberian Railway until she found her- 
self, at whatever cost of men and money, mistress 
of an ice-free port in northeastern Asia. 

The Russian advance toward the north Pacific 
had been carefully planned and effectively exe- 
cuted. At the beginning of the twentieth cen- 
tury Japan saw her great rival occupying the 
Liao-tung Peninsula, in virtual control of the 
Chinese Province of Manchuria, and in possession 
of two of the most formidable naval and military 
bases to be found anywhere in the world— 
Vladivostock, within a few hours’ steaming of 
Korea’s northeastern boundary; Port Arthur, 
within a few hours of her southwestern boundary. 
That these fortresses were separated by the 
Korean Peninsula, that the former was ice-bound 
for six months in the year, that the latter was too 
small to serve adequately the naval and commer- 
cial needs of Russia in that quarter were facts to 
be set side by side with Russia’s diplomatic pres- 
sure on the Korean Court, her intimate relations 
with the anti-Japanese party in Korea, and her 
efforts to purchase land in or near Korea’s south- 
ern ports. ‘There were a number of attractive 
possibilities: the excellent ice-free port of Ma- 
sampo might be leased, thus giving Russia a naval 
base within two hundred miles of the Japanese 
coast; it might be feasible to secure control of the 
proposed railroad from Wiju, on the Manchurian 


48 THE NEW KOREA 


frontier, for the construction of which a French 
company had obtained a concession, thus assuring 
an all-rail connection from northern Manchuria 
into the heart of the Peninsula; and other, simi- 
lar, opportunities presented themselves. 

During the summer of 1903 Japan decided 
that the time was ripe to make a definite stand 
against Russia’s steady advance through Man- 
churia to the Korean border, and to put an end to 
the ceaseless intrigues by which, within Korea 
itself, Russian agents were preparing for the day 
when the Russian flag would fly over the palace 
at Seoul. Negotiations were opened with St. 
Petersburg with a view to reaching some agree- 
ment on the broad question of Russian-J apanese 
relations in the Far East. Between August, 
1908, and February, 1904, ten different drafts 
of a proposed treaty were discussed; but the 
evasive and otherwise unsatisfactory character of 
the Russian proposals and counter-proposals con- 
vinced the Japanese cabinet that it was hopeless 
to look for a peaceful solution of the problem. 
Japan having, in defence of her Korean policy, 
fought the most populous nation of Asia would 
now, in the same cause, fight the most populous 
nation of Kurope. On February 5, 1904, the 
negotiations were broken off, and a few days later 
war was declared. 

From this point onward Japanese policy to- 
ward Korea stiffened. The first evidence of the 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 49 


new attitude was the conclusion of a Protocol 
between the two countries on February 23, 1904. 
Although Japan reasserts her guaranty of the 
independence and territorial integrity of Korea, 
it is agreed that “. . . the Imperial Government 
of Korea shall place full confidence in the Im- 
perial Government of Japan and adopt the ad- 
vice of the latter in regard to improvements in 
administration”; and, further, that “in case the 
welfare of the Imperial House of Korea, or the 
territorial integrity of Korea, is endangered by 
the aggression of a third power, or by internal 
disturbances, the Imperial Government of Japan 
shall immediately take such necessary measures 
as the circumstances require, and in such cases, 
the Imperial Government of Korea shall give 
full facilities to promote the action of the Im- 
perial Japanese Government. . . . Japan may, 
for the attainment of the above mentioned ob- 
jects, occupy, when the circumstances require it, 
such places as may be necessary from strategical 
points of view.” 

Another agreement, signed on August 22, 
1904, makes it mandatory on the Korean Goy- 
ernment to engage a Japanese financial adviser, 
whose advice must be heard before any financial 
matter is acted upon; and a foreign diplomatic 
adviser, recommended by the Japanese Govern- 
ment, without whose previous counsel no impor- 
tant matter concerning foreign relations is to be 


50 THE NEW KOREA 


dealt with. 'The final article of the agreement 
reads: “The Korean Government shall previ- 
ously consult the Japanese Government in con- 
cluding treaties and conventions with foreign 
powers, and in dealing with other important 
diplomatic affairs, such as the grant of conces- 
sions to or contracts with foreigners.” 

It is obvious that one effect of this agreement 
was to make Korea a protectorate of Japan, 
whilst leaving public authority to be exercised in 
the name of the Emperor of Korea. ‘The next 
step taken in the course which led, finally, to 
annexation, was an agreement dated November 
17, 1905. ‘The preamble contains the significant 
provision that “the following stipulations are to 
serve until the moment arrives when it is recog- 
nized that Korea has attained national strength.” 
The agreement provided that the external rela- 
tions of Korea should in future be conducted by 
the Department of Foreign Affairs in Tokyo; 
that Japanese diplomatic and consular officers 
should have charge of the subjects and interests 
of Korea in foreign countries; that Japan should 
assume responsibility for the execution of treaties 
already existing between Korea and other pow- 
ers; that the Government of Korea should not 
in future enter into any act or engagement of an 
international character except through the me- 
dium of the Government of Japan; and that the 
Government of Japan undertakes to maintain 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 51 


the welfare and dignity of the Imperial House 
of Korea. 

Article 3 completely changed the character of 
Japan’s representation vis-d-vis the Korean 
Court. The envoy is replaced by a Resident- 
General, having the right of private and personal 
audience with the Emperor of Korea, and the 
Japanese consuls are replaced by Residents, to be 
stationed at the several open ports and at such 
other places in Korea as the Government of 
Japan may deem necessary. 

It is to be observed that in this agreement no 
mention is made of Korean independence, the 
fact being, probably, that by this time Japan 
realized the impracticable quality of a policy 
which on the one hand made her responsible for 
Korea’s national status, and on the other left 
her with no sufficient authority in the country to 
prevent the occurrence of events which might at 
any moment involve her in the most serious inter- 
national difficulties. 

On November 22, 1905, the Japanese Govern- 
ment issued a declaration to the powers in treaty- 
relation with Korea, in which is presented a clear 
and frank account of her new Korean policy. 
The document runs as follows: 


The relations of propinquity have made it neces- 
sary for Japan to take and exercise, for reasons 
closely connected with her own safety and repose, a 
paramount interest and influence in the political and 


52 


THE NEW KOREA 


military affairs of Korea. The measures hitherto 
taken have been purely advisory, but the experience 
of recent years has demonstrated the insufficiency of 
measures of guidance alone. The unwise and im- 
provident action of Korea, more especially in the 
domain of her international affairs, has in the past 
been the most fruitful source of complications. To 
permit the present unsatisfactory condition of things 
to continue unrestrained and unregulated would be 
to invite fresh difficulties, and Japan believes that 
she owes it to herself and to her desire for the general 
pacification of the extreme East to take the steps 
necessary to put an end once for all to this dangerous 
situation. Accordingly, with that object in view and 
in order at the same time to safeguard its own posi- 
tion and to promote the well-being of the government 
and people of Korea, the Imperial Government has 
resolved to assume a more intimate and direct influ- 
ence and responsibility than heretofore in the ex- 
ternal relations of the Peninsula. The Government 
of His Majesty the Emperor of Korea is in accord 
with the Imperial Government as to the absolute 
necessity of the measure, and the two Governments, 
in order to provide for the peaceful and amicable 
establishment of the new order of things, have con- 
cluded the accompanying compact. In bringing this 
agreement to the notice of the powers having treaties 
with Korea, the Imperial Government declares that 
in assuming charge of the foreign relations of Korea 
and in undertaking the duty of watching over the 
execution of the existing treaties of that country, 
they will see that those treaties are maintained and 
respected, and also engages not to prejudice in any 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 58 


way the legitimate commercial and industrial in- 

terests of those powers in Korea. 

Both in respect of foreign and of internal 
affairs the new arrangement proved to be unsatis- 
factory. So far as reforming the Korean sys- 
tem of administration was concerned two circum- 
stances combined to make the task hopeless; the 
Korean officials were bound to listen to the advice 
of their Japanese advisers in the various depart- 
ments, but they were not bound to follow it; and 
most of these officials were dishonest and grossly 
incompetent. The situation might have pro- 
longed itself had it not been for a highly inju- 
dicious step taken by the Korean Emperor, in 
1907, in direct violation of that article of the 
agreement of 1905 under which Korea pledged 
herself not to enter into any act of an interna- 
tional character, except through the medium of 
Japan. In July, 1907, there appeared at The 
Hague three Koreans who sought recognition as 
delegates to the Peace Conference, offering as 
their credentials a document bearing the seal of 
the Korean Emperor. When this news reached 
Japan it created a good deal of excitement, since 
it appeared to contain the threat that the whole 
Korean problem was about to be opened up 
again. Public opinion was seriously disturbed, 
and the press was almost unanimous in demand- 
ing a strong course of action. Such a course the 
Government decided to adopt. 


54 THE NEW KOREA 


At the time, Marquis Ito (a sincere friend and 
well-wisher of Korea) was Resident-General in 
Seoul. To him was sent Viscount Hayashi, the 
Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs, with au- 
thority to act in the circumstances, after con- 
sultation with the Resident-General. He arrived 
in Seoul on July 18. During his service as 
Resident-General, Marquis Ito had reached the 
firm conviction that Korean affairs could never 
be put in any decent state of order as long as the 
throne was occupied by the Emperor, who had 
shown himself to be wholly untrustworthy, and 
who, moreover, had done everything possible to 
hinder the progress of internal reform. YF or- 
tunately there had recently been appointed a new 
Korean Cabinet, composed of men who saw 
clearly that unless the Emperor and his Court 
should cease their pernicious interference with 
the conduct of Government, it would be impos- 
sible to save the Imperial House from the most 
serious consequences. ‘The present crisis put in 
the hands of the Cabinet a weapon which they 
were glad to employ in the general interest of the 
country. Even before the arrival of Viscount 
Hayashi the Cabinet had urged upon the Em- 
peror the advisability of abdicating in favor of 
his son. ‘The day after the Viscount’s arrival 
their arguments prevailed; and on July 17, the 
Korean Minister of Justice carried to the Resi- 
dent-General the Emperor’s announcement of his 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 55 


abdication. Shortly after the matter became 
generally known there was serious rioting in 
Seoul, precipitated by a mutinous regiment of 
Korean troops. 

After a series of conferences between the 
Japanese Representatives and the Korean Cab- 
inet, and between the latter and the new Em- 
peror, an agreement was signed between Japan 
and Korea on July 24, 1907. 

This agreement left the Imperial Korean 
House still on the throne; but it placed Japan in 
practical control of the administration of the 
country, by making the appointment and dis- 
missal of all high officials in Korea dependent 
upon the concurrence of the Resident-General, 
by providing for his previous assent to the enact- 
ment by the Korean Government of all laws, 
ordinances, and regulations, and by binding the 
Government to appoint as Korean officials any 
J apanese subjects recommended by the Resident- 
General. 

Having in view the general conditions of the 
country in the period after the new agreement, it 
is difficult to see how Japan could long postpone 
an act of annexation, unless she was prepared to 
face indefinitely the risks and inconveniences of 
an anomalous administrative system. A Treaty 
of Annexation was negotiated between the two 
governments, and was signed on August 22, 1910, 
by Viscount Masakata 'Terauchi, Resident- 


56 THE NEW KOREA 


General, and by Yi Wan Yong, Minister Presi- 
dent of State. 

In the first Annual Report compiled by the 
Government-General, which succeeded the Resi- 
dency-General, the subject of the annexation is 
thus dealt with: 


The Governments of both Japan and Korea, ex- 
erting for more than four years, their utmost efforts 
in the way of administrative reform, and looking 
forward to the consummation of the desired end, the 
improvements and progress made were by no means 
small. But they failed to find in the Protectorate 
régime sufficient guarantees of the permanent welfare 
of the Imperial Family of Korea and of the pros- 
perity of the people. 

In spite of the fact that a number of pacificatory 
measures with regard to insurgents were put into 
effect, insurgents and brigands continued to appear 
in certain localities, and could not be put down. 
Escorts of police or gendarmes. were often needed for 
officials, individuals, and letter-carriers, travelling in 
the remote interior or mountainous regions. Even a 
certain class of peaceful people, instigated by reck- 
less agitators, were led to believe that Japanese 
revenue officers would carry away to Japan the money 
collected as taxes; and thus, frequently, they at- 
tempted to do injury to these officials. In the blind- 
ness of fury and inspired by short-sighted supersti- 
tion and mistaken patriotism, a band of Koreans 
assassinated Mr. Durham White Stevens, a citizen of 
the United States, Councillor to the Korean Govern- 
ment, in March, 1908, in San Francisco, on his way 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 57 


to Washington on furlough. In October of the fol- 
lowing year, Prince Ito, who had filled the office of 
Resident-General in Korea till June, was also as- 
sassinated by a Korean in Harbin Station, when he 
was on a visit to North China. In the following 
December, a Korean further attempted to kill Mr. 
Yi Wan-Yong, the Prime Minister of the Korean 
Government. Thus distressing conditions still existed 
in Korea, and uneasiness and anxicty often kept the 
Imperial Family of that country in a state of misery, 
while the Ministers of State had to be constantly 
escorted by armed policemen. 

In these conditions the Imperial Government failed 
to find in the régime of a Protectorate in Korea suffi- 
cient hope of realising the improvements which they 
had had in view, despite the fact that many reform 
measures had been introduced for the benefit of the 
Korean people. Stability of public peace and order 
not being firmly established yet, a spirit of suspicion 
and misunderstanding still dominated the whole 
Peninsula, and the mass of people were burdened with 
anxiety. Most of the Japanese and foreigners in 
Korea had to confine their residence to cities, ports, 
or towns along the railway lines and could not enter 
the interior to engage permanently in business. 

In order to sweep away evils rooted during the 
course of many years as well as to secure the well- 
being of the Korean Imperial Family, to promote the 
prosperity of the country, and at the same time to 
insure the safety and repose of Japanese and foreign 
residents, it had been made abundantly clear that, 
the Protectorate system being unable to achieve these 
aims, Korea must be annexed to the Empire and 


58 THE NEW KOREA 


brought under the direct administration of the Im- 
perial Government. There being no other way to 
attain the object in view, the Japanese conceived the 
policy of annexation as early as July, 1909. Even 
afterward the actual condition of affairs in Korea 
had continued to grow worse and worse, with no ap- 
parent hope of improvement. The assassinations of 
Mr. Stevens and Prince Ito, and the attempt to as- 
sassinate Premier Yi, mentioned already, induced cer- 
tain classes of Koreans to tender to their Sovereign 
and the Resident-General a petition for annexation, 
so that the question became a matter of public agita- 
tion among officials as well as among the people of 
Japan. In fine the necessity of annexation grew day 
by day, and the measure was finally carried into effect 
on August 29, 1910. 


That the aims set forth in the foregoing quota- 
tion have been pursued during the past sixteen 
years with a great, and in some directions with an 
astonishing measure of success is made evident 
in the body of the present volume. For the first 
nine years of the Government-General’s exist- 
ence Korea was administered under a system 
which, though it yielded many benefits for the 
Korean people, was applied with far too much 
military harshness and inflexibility. It was most 
unfortunate for everybody concerned that a rule 
of this character should have existed at the time 
when the extremely difficult and arduous work of 
organizing a new government was in progress. 
In such an undertaking the authorities could have 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 59 


found no more powerful ally than a spirit of 
friendliness among the people. 

The measures taken to stamp out the Inde- 
pendence Movement of 1919, stupid, cruel, and 
unjustifiable as some of them undoubtedly were, 
accomplished their purpose. F'rom that time on- 
ward Korea has enjoyed a period of internal 
tranquillity and of general progress for which the 
previous history of the country affords no re- 
motest parallel. 

Of the Independence Movement itself I have 
little to say in the present connection. The Inde- 
pendence Party contained many Koreans of 
excellent intelligence and education, inspired by a 
deep nationalist feeling. Whether or not the 
Japanese administration of the country had been 
so conducted as to justify an attempt to subvert 
it has no bearing upon the “right” of the Koreans 
to make the attempt. The “right” of revolt is 
inherent wherever Government exists, whether 
that government is of native origin or has been 
imposed from without. 

Whenever such revolts occur those who take 
part in them fall into three groups—one is made 
up of men and women profoundly convinced that 
success will result in benefit to the general wel- 
fare, and who have no aim other than this; one 
contains those who, from selfish motives of per- 
sonal advantage, wish to substitute themselves for 
those then in power; one is a nondescript rabble 


60 THE NEW KOREA 


which welcomes the opportunity of fishing in 
troubled waters. ‘Those who belong to the first 
group deserve and usually receive the respect 
which mankind pays to those who offer their lives 
and their property in support of an honestly held 
conviction; and of these sincere patriots the 
Korean Independence Movement contained an 
unusually large proportion. 

It seems to me that there is absolutely no possi- 
bility of Korean Independence being reached by 
the road of revolt. The Koreans cannot drive the 
Japanese out of the country; and if the cause of 
JXorean Independence were espoused by any na- 
tion powerful enough to create a serious threat to 
the Japanese occupancy, the first move made to 
carry out that threat would, without question, 
plunge Asia into war overnight, and would 
bring most of the balance of the world into the 
struggle within a month. There is one possibil- 
ity, and one only, of an independent Korea. If 
at some future time the League of Nations, or 
some similar Association of Powers, should pre- 
scribe a universal surrender of all colonial de- 
pendencies to their native inhabitants, Korea 
would be one of Japan’s contributions to the gen- 
eral settlement. Such a possibility is, of course, 
too remote to call for present discussion. 

I found informed opinion both in Korea and in 
Japan divided on the question of what, short of 
independence, would be the ultimate status of the 


DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 61 


Peninsula. Two theories held the field—one that 
it will become an integral part of the Japanese 
political system, sending elected representatives 
to the Imperial Diet; the other that it will event- 
ually be given Dominion home-rule within the 
Japanese Empire. 

Speaking as a person in whom the idea of 
Korean Independence incites neither mental nor 
moral resistance I may express my belief that 
those Koreans will be doing their country the 
greatest service who co-operate with the Japanese 
in building up the cultural and economic con- 
ditions favorable on the one hand to the granting, 
and on the other to the successful use, of local 
self-government. 

During the past year the news from Korea 
justifies the hope that a trend in this direction has 
already set in. To whatever extent it exists the 
credit is due chiefly to the humane and concilia- 
tory attitude of Governor-General Saito toward 
the Korean people, and to the wise measures 
which, for more than six years, have been the 
fruit of an unstinting employment of his unusual 
energy and of his still more unusual adminis- 
trative talents. | 


CHAPTER III 
SUMMARY: 


The internal administration of Korea has, for 
many years, been a matter of earnest solicitude to 
the Japanese. ‘The dangers and annoyances as- 
sociated with corrupt and grossly inefficient rule 
in a country whose southern coast-line is within a 
few hours’ steaming from Japan will be obvious 
to those who have had occasion to study the causes 
of the Spanish-American War, and to those who, 
today, are hoping to see Mexico develop in such 
a way as to encourage the most cordial relations 
with the United States. 

There exists, indeed, a certain type of mind to 
which the contagion of misrule conveys no threat 
to domestic tranquillity on the other side of a 
frontier, to which the circumstances of American 
territorial expansion, and of the extension of 
British rule in India, teach no lesson. Intelligent 
observers, however, are aware that bad govern- 
ment can be as poor a neighbor as bad health, that 
social unrest can cross a boundary line as readily 
as small-pox or yellow fever, that the “land- 
grabbing” of the English-speaking races, which 
followed the original conquest or settlement was 

62 


SUMMARY 63 


due in large measure to the necessity of bringing 
within the national sovereignty a neighbor who, 
for one reason or another, was a menace to the 
national welfare. 

In the case of Korea the menace to Japan arose 
from two main causes—first, that centuries of 
misrule had reduced the Korean people to a con- 
dition from which it was hopeless to expect that, 
through a popular demand for internal reform, 
Korea might lift itself into the rank of a State 
having sufficient wealth and sufficient power to 
maintain its independence; second, and as a con- 
sequence of the first, that, either by force or by 
guile, Russia or China might take possession of 
the Peninsula, thus creating a strategic situation 
which could not be tolerated by any person or 
party responsible for the national defence of 
Japan. 

All available evidence tends to prove that for 
many years Japanese policy toward Korea was 
concerned chiefly with securing for that country 
the position of an independent sovereign State, 
and for herself the acceptance by the great 
powers of the principle that Japan’s interest in 
Korean affairs was to be considered predominant, 
in the sense that England’s special interest in 
Egypt, and that of the United States in Latin 
America, had received tacit recognition in the 
world’s chancelleries. | 

In support of the first conception Japan de- 


64 THE NEW KOREA 


clared war on China in 1894 and, in the Treaty 
of Shimoneseki, exacted the renunciation of 
China’s suzerainty over Korea and the acknowl- 
edgment of that country’s independence. In de- 
fence of the second conception Japan, having in 
view the Russian occupation of Vladivostok and 
of Port Arthur, the conversion of these places 
into two of the most formidable fortresses in 
existence, the extension of the Trans-Siberian 
Railway to the Korean frontier, and the per- 
sistent Russian intrigues in Manchuria and in 
Korea itself, fought the Russo-Japanese War, 
1904-1905. 

At the conclusion of the War Japan decided 
that in the interest of Korea, in her own interest, 
and in the general interest of peace and progress 
in the Far East, her power to influence the Gov- 
ernment of Korea in respect of administrative 
reform, which had hitherto depended upon diplo- 
matic procedure and upon the activities of several 
Japanese advisers in various departments, could 
be made effective only by establishing a Resi- 
dency-General somewhat after the pattern of 
that set up by the British in the Federated Malay 
States, a system which had yielded the most bene- 
ficial results. This was done in 1905, and had the 
practical effect of making Korea a Japanese Pro- 
tectorate. Under the original arrangement the 
results of the new policy were unsatisfactory, be- 
cause it was not mandatory upon the Korean 


SUMMARY 65 


officials to follow the advice of the Resident- 
General. This situation was remedied in 1907 by 
the conclusion of a Convention between Korea 
and Japan, under the terms of which the Gov- 
ernment of Korea “shall follow the direction of 
the Resident-General in connection with the 
reform of the administration” and “shall not 
enact any law or ordinance, or carry out any im- 
portant administrative measure, except with the 
previous approval of the Resident-General.” 

Three years’ experience under the new system 
showed that it could not be operated successfully 
in face of the hostility, of the indifference, incom- 
petence, or dishonesty of the Korean officials. In 
Korea, as elsewhere, divided authority and re- 
sponsibility—the method of diarchy—led to little 
but social unrest and administrative impotence. 
Accordingly, under the terms of a Treaty signed 
on August 22, 1910, by the plenipotentiaries of 
the two countries, the Emperor of Korea made 
complete and permanent cession to the Emperor 
of Japan of all rights of sovereignty over the 
whole of Korea. A week later the Emperor of 
Japan issued an Imperial Rescript announcing 
the annexation and ordering the establishment of 
the office of Governor-General of Korea. From 
August 29, 1910 Japan has had full responsibil- 
ity for, and full power in, the administration of 
Korea. 

The Japanese proclamations issued at the time 


66 THE NEW KOREA 


of the annexation were couched in conciliatory 
language, and the measures adopted when the 
transfer of authority was effected were well cal- 
culated to mollify public sentiment. The im- 
perial house of Korea was liberally provided for, 
its dignity was preserved by granting to the ex- 
emperor and to other members of the imperial 
family the same privileges and honors enjoyed by 
princes of the imperial blood in Japan, peerages 
were conferred upon a number of Korean nobles. 

An imperial donation of thirty million yen 
(fifteen million dollars U. S.) was made by the 
Emperor of Japan, of which about one third was 
bestowed upon Korean noblemen, meritorious 
public servants, scholars, indigent widows, wid- 
owers, orphans, and others, the balance, of some- 
thing over seventeen million yen, being set aside 
as a permanent fund of which the annual interest 
was to be devoted to giving various forms of aid 
to Koreans. If the imperial donation to Korea 
was only equal to three-quarters of that which the 
United States had paid in respect of the cession 
of the Philippine Islands, it should not be over- 
looked that the American money went to the 
Spanish Government, whereas the Japanese Do- 
nation went to the Korean people. 

The problems confronting the Government- 
General of Korea were neither few nor simple. 
The purpose of the Japanese was to set up a 
thoroughly modern administrative system, to de- 


SUMMARY 67 


velop the natural resources of the country, and to 
foster trade and industry. ‘The road to success 
was encumbered with every imaginable obstacle. 
The whole machinery of administration had to be 
planned, a complete civil service had to be cre- 
ated, a large staff of technical experts had to be 
engaged, a financial system had to be devised 
capable of yielding the revenue essential for the 
carrying out of the government’s policy. 

The situation presented but one favorable cir- 
cumstance, the docile character of the mass of the 
Korean people. There was not, at the time of 
annexation, nor has there since arisen, any 
ground for serious anxiety on the part of the 
Japanese military authorities. It is, therefore, 
difficult for a foreign observer to understand why 
the Japanese Government should have made the 
rule that the Governor-General of Korea could 
only be appointed from the roster of officers of 
the army or navy. Experience proved that in 
this matter a serious mistake in policy had been 
made, and in 1919 the restriction was removed, 
the appointment being thrown open to civilians. 

The selection of military officers for colonial 
governorships has been a common practice both 
of the Dutch and the British; but it is an objec- 
tionable procedure. History furnishes, indeed, 
instances in which the talent for conducting mili- 
tary enterprises has been combined with the tal- 
ent for civil administration; but such instances 


68 THE NEW KOREA 


are extremely rare. The task of administering 
the affairs of a colonial dependency is one which 
calls for a temperament totally different from 
that which goes to the making of a good military 
man. ‘The success of a military commander, 
sound technical knowledge being assumed, will 
depend upon the extent to which he enforces dis- 
cipline and exacts compliance with thousands of 
precise and inflexible regulations; his duties are 
to issue orders and to see that they are obeyed 
without argument or protest; he need give no 
thought to the feelings engendered by his admin- 
istration. 

A civil administrator, on the other hand, can 
only succeed if he adopts a policy of give and 
take, and carries it out in a spirit of compromise. 
A large proportion of his work is constructive in 
its nature, and needs, for its fruition, the good- 
will of the people. What is necessary above all 
things is that the administrator’s rule should bear 
the impress of urbanity and conciliation—the two 
qualities least to be expected in a military man. 

From 1910 to 1919 Japanese rule in Korea, 
though it accomplished much good for the people, 
bore the stamp of a military stiffness which 
aroused a great deal of resentment, hampered the 
progress of reform, and was largely responsible 
for the discontent which culminated in the procla- 
mation of Korean Independence by the leaders of 
the Korean nationalists on March 1, 1919. 


SUMMARY 69 


The merciless severity with which the revolt 
was repressed shocked the public sentiment of the 
world. In Japan itself the indignation reached 
such a height that the government was compelled 
to find means of appeasing it. The Governor- 
General of Korea was recalled, the rule excluding 
civilians from eligibility for that post was can- 
celed, the new Governor-General, Admiral Baron 
Saito (now Viscount), though not a civilian, was 
recognized throughout the Far East as a man of 
high administrative ability, of generous and hu- 
mane disposition, and of great personal charm. 

The New Korea of which I write is the Korea 
which has developed under the wise and sym- 
pathetic guidance of Governor-General Saito. I 
may quote here a few paragraphs of an article by 
Bishop Herbert Welch, Resident Bishop, in the 
Korean capital, of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church. The article appeared in The Christian 
Advocate of May 138, 1920, and the quotation 
derives particular significance from the circum- 
stance that Bishop Welch has always been an out- 
spoken critic of everything he has deemed to be 
blameworthy in the Japanese administration of 
Korea. | 

Referring to Baron Saito’s assumption of the 
Governor-Generalship, Bishop Welch says: 


A sharp contrast at once became evident with the 
methods and spirit of the preceding administration. 


70 THE NEW KOREA 


The Governor-General himself was simple and un- 
affected in manner, genial, approachable, evidently 
anxious to know and to propitiate foreign opinion 
in the country. His advent was marked by the speedy 
disappearance of countless swords and uniforms. 
- - - His chief associate, Dr. R. Midzuno, the Ad- 
ministrative Superintendent, an official of high stand- 
ing and wide executive experience, seemed to share 
with the Governor to a large degree the ideals of 
simplicity, directness and the permeation of the gov- 
ernment activities by the civilian as contrasted with 
the military spirit... . 

Meanwhile, on the Korean side the past year has 
unquestionably brought a further crystallization of 
opinion which is hostile to any Japanese government. 
The minds of many are fixed on complete national 
independence as the only goal, and they declare that 
they have no interest whatever in the question of 
reforms by the present or any Japanese administra- 
tion. On the other hand many, including some of 
the most intelligent and far-seeing, are persuaded 
that there is no hope of speedy independence, and 
that they must settle down for a long period to build 
up the Korean people, in physical conditions, in 
knowledge, in morality, and in the ability to handle 
government concerns... . 

It must be fully recognized that the Japanese gov- 
ernment has by no means as yet won the hearts of 
the Korean people; rather they are further off from 
that today than fifteen months ago. ... On the 
other hand, there are elements of decided encourage- 
ment. One of these I find in the character of the 
Governor-General, Admiral Baron Saito himself. He 


SUMMARY yp 


came to Korea last September with the possibility 
in his thought of declaring a general political am- 
nesty—wiping the political slate clean and making 
a new start on the basis of a liberal and humane 
policy. He was met at the railway station in Seoul 
by a bomb thrown by the hand of a fanatic, an action 
which was promptly disavowed by representative 
Koreans, yet which could not but affect somewhat 
one’s view of the situation. 

Baron Saito, however, instead of taking a strong 
hand, as some would have justified him in doing under 
those circumstances, has continued of mild and 
friendly temper. I have implicit trust in his sin- 
cerity, and I believe that with time enough he will 
show the strength, even in spite of the difficulties 
which confront him in Korea, and of the backfire of 
criticism and opposition from the militaristic and 
bureaucratic groups in Tokyo, to bring to pass large 
things for the welfare of the Korean people... . 


The foregoing paragraphs were written in 
1920, when Governor-General Saito had only 
been a few months in the country. At the time 
of my own visit to Korea, in 1922, the Governor- 
General had nearly completed three years of his 
tenure of office. He had latterly had the advan- 
tage of having as Vice-Governor-General, or 
Administrative Superintendent (the two titles 
appear to be used indiscriminately in the official 
documents) Mr. 'T. Ariyoshi, one of Japan’s most 
expert and highly regarded civil administrators— 
aman whom, from my own observation, I know to 


72 THE NEW KOREA 


be a tireless worker and sympathetic toward the 
Korean people. 

The general consensus of opinion in Korea in 
1922, except in so far as it reflected the feelings 
of the anti-J apanese extremists, was that Gover- 
nor-General Saito had been animated by a sincere 
desire to rule Korea through a just and tolerant 
administration, that he had accomplished notable 
reforms, that in the matter of education he had 
ministered very generously to the cultural ambi- 
tions of the people, and that in regard to their 
political ambitions he had, whilst setting his face 
sternly against anything which could encourage 
the vain hope of independence, shown himself 
eager to foster local self-government, and to in- 
fuse into the personal relations of the Japanese 
and Koreans a spirit of friendliness and co- 
operation. 

Discussing Korean affairs with a good many 
people—Korean, Japanese, and foreign, officia! 
and non-official—I found almost unanimous 
agreement on two points: one, that native senti- 
ment had, in recent years, shown a continuing 
tendency to become less anti-J apanese; the other, 
that the remarkable increase in the country’s 
prosperity had been accompanied by a striking 
improvement in the living conditions of the 
Korean people at large. 

Writing now, four years after the date of my 
visit, and having in mind the most recent accounts 


SUMMARY 73 


of the state of Korea, I can express my conviction 
that there has occurred a steady and accelerating 
improvement in the general conditions of the 
country, in the administrative organization and 
personnel, and in the temper of the intercourse 
between the Koreans and the Japanese. 

In the following pages I present a brief sum- 
mary, under specific heads, of the salient features 
of Korean progress from the time of annexation 
down to the date of the latest available informa- 
tion. With reference to statistics it is to be noted 
that the official fiscal year begins on April 1 and 
ends on March 81 of the year following. The 
unit of money is the yen, which has a par value of 
fifty cents, U. S., fluctuating, however, with the 
movement of the foreign exchange market. 


Material Progress 
Production— 


About eighty-two per cent of the total popula- 
tion of Korea depend directly upon agriculture 
for their livelihood. The area under cultivation 
increased from about 10,600,000 acres in 1912 to 
nearly 15,000,000 in 1923.* During the same 
period the estimated value of agricultural prod- 
uce rose from 435,000,000 yen to 1,169,000,000 
yen. A considerable proportion of the increases 
noted above was due to measures taken by the 


* When two or more crops are raised in one year on the same land 
the area is counted for each crop. 


74 THE NEW KOREA 


Government for improving the condition of the 
farmers. Among these may be named organiza- 
tion of various forms of agricultural credit, the 
reclamation of waste lands, the construction of 
irrigation works, the improvement of farming 
methods, and the introduction of new agricul- 
tural industries. 

In respect of the first of these measures it may 
be noted that in 1912 the amount of outstanding 
agricultural loans was less than five million yen, 
and in 1923 was more than 134 million yen, a 
large part of the increase representing invest- 
ment in agricultural improvements of one sort 
and another. As an instance of the introduction 
of new industries silk culture is an example. In 
1910 the total value of Korean sericultural prod- 
ucts was only 400,000 yen; in 1923 it had 
risen to nearly 26 million yen. 

Closely associated with agriculture is forestry. 
Under native rule there had been an almost com- 
plete neglect of forest conservation, so that at the 
time of annexation there was a serious shortage 
of fire-wood and of building lumber. What was 
even worse was that the denuded mountain sides 
could no longer absorb the heavy rainfall of the 
wet season. ‘This resulted in serious annual floods 
and in the loss of the land’s natural supply of 
moisture. As early as 1907 the Japanese Resi- 
dency-General had induced the Korean Govern- 
ment to undertake afforestation work; and in 


SUMMARY 75 


1911 the Government-General issued its new 
forestry regulations. In the same year the 
Governor-General established an Arbor Day. 
Since annexation more than a thousand million 
seedlings have been planted for the purpose of 
re-establishing the Korean forests. The Govern- 
ment, further, encouraged the formation of For- 
estry Associations, and of these there were in 
1925 three hundred and fifty, with a total mem- 
bership of nearly a million. 

The Government also interested itself in the 
development of the Korean fisheries. Measures 
were taken to improve the methods of fishing and 
of curing and packing aquatic products. Be- 
tween 1912 and 1921 the value of the catch 
increased from eight million to forty-five million 
yen; the value of the exports of fresh fish from 
138 thousand to over seven million yen; the value 
of marine products manufactured, from four mil- 
lion to twenty-five million yen; and the value of 
manufactured marine products exported, from 
less than two million yen to more than eleven 
million. 

In the mining industry the total output was 
valued in 1912 at nearly seven million yen and in 
1921 at over fifteen million yen. In the main 
group of metals and minerals the gold production 
shows a decline in value, other production a 
marked increase. Coal mounted from something 
over 500,000 yen to a little over three million, 


76 THE NEW KOREA 


iron ore from 156,000 to nearly two million, pig 
iron from nothing to nearly five million, concen- 
trates from 275,000 to nearly five million. 

In regard to manufactures, commerce and in- 
dustry progress was seriously hampered under 
native rule by the deplorable condition of the 
native system of currency, by the insecurity of 
life and property, by the lax or corrupt adminis- 
tration of law, and by the lack of governmental 
interest in the general question of development 
and in the advantages to be derived from scien- 
tific research in the various fields of industry. In 
each of these matters the Government-General 
has introduced wide-reaching reforms, of which 
the consequences can be observed in the following 
table: 


Ten Years’ Growrs or Commerce, MANUFACTURES, AND BANKING 
(Values in thousands of yen) 


1912 1921 


Exports by sea 20,985 207,280 
Exports by land 356* 10,996 
Imports by sea 67,115 205,210 
Imports by land 467* 27,171 
Total foreign trade 88,101 450,658 


Paid-up capital of business corporations 103,720 | 1,083,551 
Value of factory products 29,362 166,414 
Number of Koreans employed in factories. . . 14,974 40,418 
Number of Japanese employed in factories... 2,291 6,330 
Government expenditure for advancement of 

commerce and industry 2,932 8,797 
Bank deposits 27,837 171,891 
Value of clearing house transactions 98,488 852,053 





* Figures for 1913. 


SUMMARY 77 


Government 


On October 30, 1910, the Organic Regulations 
of the Government-General of Chosen (Korea) 
were promulgated by a Japanese Imperial Ordi- 
nance. ‘The Regulations established a Secre- 
tariat, and five Departments, to which were 
assigned, respectively, General Affairs, Home 
Affairs, Finance, Justice, and Agriculture, Com- 
merce and Industry. For the purpose of carry- 
ing on the government a large staff of Japanese 
officials was installed. As few of these officials 
had any close knowledge of local conditions or of 
the Korean language, the actual position was that 
although a complete administrative machine was 
set in motion, it was realised by the authorities 
that from the experience of its employment the 
necessity would become apparent of many 
changes designed to make the system increasingly 
suitable to the particular circumstances of the 
country. 

F’rom year to year various reforms were intro- 
duced; but it was not until 1919 that, following 
the outbreak and suppression of the Independ- 
ence Movement, and the appointment of Admiral 
Baron Saito to the Governor-Generalship, a 
matured plan of general reorganization was 
undertaken under the authority of an Imperial 
Rescript. A 

The statement of the matters to be effected by 


78 THE NEW KOREA 


the new plans shows that the authorities recog- 
nized clearly the character of the defects which 
had become apparent during the nine years which 
had elapsed since the original Organic Regula- 
tions had been put in force. ‘The official list of 
the purposes to which the new measures were 
addressed was as follows: 


(1) Non-discrimmation between Japanese and 
Korean officials. 
(2) Simplification of laws and regulations. 
(3) Prompt transaction of state business. 
(4) Decentralization policy. 
(5) Improvement in local organization. 
(6) Respect for native culture and customs. 
(7) Freedom of speech, meeting, and press. 
(8) Spread of education and development of in- 
dustry. 
(9) Re-organization of the police system. 
(10) Enlargement of medical and sanitary agen- 
cles. 
(11) Guidance of the people. 
(12) Advancement of men of talent. 
(13) Friendly feeling between Japanese and 
Koreans. 


In a Proclamation to the People of Chosen, 
issued by Governor-General Saito on September 
10, 1919, His Excellency made the following 
declaration: 


I am determined to superintend officials under my 
control and encourage them to put forth greater 


SUMMARY 79 


efforts to act in a fairer and juster way, and pro- 
mote the facilities of the people and the unhindered 
attainment of the people’s desires by dispensing with 
all formalities. Full consideration will be given to 
the appointment and treatment of Koreans so as to 
secure the right men for the right places, and what 
in Korean institutions and old customs is worthy of 
adoption will be adopted as a means of government. 
I also hope to introduce reform in the different 
branches of administrative activity, and enforce local 
self-government at the proper opportunity, and 
thereby ensure stability for the people and enhance 
their general welfare. It is most desirable that the 
government and the governed throw open their hearts 
and minds to each other and combine their efforts 
to advance civilization in Chosen, solidify its founda- 
tions of enlightened government, and thus answer 
His Majesty’s benevolent solicitude. If anybody is 
found guilty of unwarrantably refractory language 
or action, of misleading the popular mind, and of 
impeding the maintenance of public peace, he will 
meet with relentless justice. May it be that the 
people at large will place reliance on all this. 


The reader of the administrative chapters in 
the present volume will see that Governor- 
General Saito has been as good as his word. He 
has kept his promise to rule with justice, firm- 
ness, and tolerance, and to keep in view the 
cultural and economic interests of the Korean 
people. 

Among the more important of his adminis- 


80 THE NEW KOREA 


trative measures are to be noted the abolition of 
the gendarmerie, the abolition of the old Korean 
custom of flogging convicted offenders, the ap- 
pointment of an increasing number of Koreans 
to high posts in the Government, the appoint- 
ment or election of advisory councils, largely 
composed of Koreans, the delegation of a great 
deal of local administration to local authorities, 
thus contributing to the education of the people 
in local self-government, the expenditure of large 
funds in aid and in encouragement of agriculture, 
industry, and commerce, the notable increase in 
the expenditure on education, culminating in the 
founding of a University at which Koreans will 
be able to secure in Korea an education as thor- 
ough as they would be able to get in Japan 
proper. 

Some of the foregoing points, and others bear- 
ing upon the general progress of the country, can 
be established statistically, as will be seen from 
the following table: 


Bupcet Estimates or EXPENDITURES BY THE GOVERNMENT-GENERAL 
on VARIOUS SPECIFIED OBJECTS 
(In thousands of yen. 1 yen=50 cents U. S.) 









1918* 





1921f Increase 


Local administration............ 4,440 10,133 128% 
Medical and Sanitary........... 730 1,883 157 
Education ge ed ae sce one 2,196 6,100 180 
Encouragement of industry...... 8,573 8,798 146 


Public: Werks sy iss sardine salen cae 7,341 15,329 108 





SUMMARY 81 


Bupcet Estmates ror Various Ciasses oF EXPENDITURE 
BY PROVINCIAL AND OTHER Pus.ic Bopigs 
(In thousands of yen) 


1918* 1921f Increase 


Medical and Sanitary 1,723 120% 
Education 19,382 287 
Encouragement of industry 5,411 153 


Public Works 11,953 272 
383 97 





* The year before Governor-General Saito’s arrival. 
{ The second year after his arrival. 


The following explanations may be given of the 
terms used in the foregoing tables: “Local Ad- 
ministration” means in this connection the local 
administrative offices of the Government-Gen- 
eral, situated in each province, county, and 
municipality; “Public Works” includes road- 
making, bridge-building, and the construction 
and repair of public buildings; ““Encouragement 
of Industry” covers items such as subsidies and 
expert services to various agricultural and manu- 
facturing enterprises. The term “Provincial and 
Other Public. Bodies” refers to administrative 
units organized in provinces, districts, munici- 
palities, and villages for dealing with education, 
sanitation, industrial encouragement, civil engi- 
neering, social and charitable undertakings in 
various localities, and with general administrative 
services in villages. The increases in expenditure 
on education and on public works register the 


82 THE NEW KOREA 


practical character of Governor-General Saito’s 
cultural policy; and it is to be noted that these 
increases were brought about within two years of 
Viscount Saito’s assumption of office. 


CHAPTER IV 
GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 
1. Tur GovERNMENT-GENERAL 


Prior to the annexation of Korea—effected by 
the Treaty of August, 1910—the influence ex- 
erted by Japan upon government in Korea 
passed through two phases. The first of these 
may be described as a period of diplomatic ad- 
vice, during which the Japanese Minister at 
Seoul, aided by a number of Japanese advisers 
engaged by the Korean Government, attempted 
to improve the deplorable condition into which 
the internal administration of Korea had fallen 
under native control. This period came to an 
end in November, 1905, when the Japanese- 
Korean Convention formulated a new relation- 
ship between the two countries. 

This Convention introduced the second phase 
of Japan’s influence in Korean government. It 
may be described as a period of administrative 
control and participation. In accordance with 
the terms of the Convention, Japan established 
in Korea, in February, 1906, a Residency- 

83 


84 THE NEW KOREA 


General, with subordinate Residencies at various 
points. 

The functions of the Residency-General were 
defined in a Convention signed in July, 1907. It 
was then provided: 


(1) That the Government of Korea shall follow 
the directions of the Resident-General in respect of 
administrative reforms; 

(2) That the Government of Korea shall not en- 
act any laws, ordinances, or regulations, or take 
any important administrative measures without the 
previous approval of the Resident-General ; 

(3) That judicial administration in Korea shall 
be conducted independently of other branches of ad- 
ministration ; 

(4) That the appointment and dismissal of all 
high officials in Korea shall be made with the con- 
currence of the Resident-General ; 

(5) That the Government of Korea shall appoint, 
as Korean officials, Japanese subjects recommended 
by the Resident-General. 


Under this arrangement considerable improve- 
ment occurred in the general administration of 
the country; but in two important matters the 
system failed of efficiency. ‘These were finance, 
and the administration of justice. 

In respect of the first of these Japan was con- 
fronted by the fact, almost universally over- 
looked, that whatever advantages may flow from 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 85 


administrative reform, and whatever economies 
such reform may eventually effect, these advan- 
tages and economies cannot be produced without 
increasing the initial cost of administration; in a 
word, that good government is cheap at the price, 
but that it cannot be had at a cheap price. 

So far as justice was concerned the Korean 
system was such, both as to its procedure and its 
officials, that far-reaching reform appeared to be 
impossible unless its administration was placed in 
the hands of Japanese public servants. 

In order to meet these difficulties Japan ar- 
ranged for a loan, free of interest, estimated at 
ten million dollars, but actually reaching a total 
of thirteen million, for the purpose of stabilizing 
the Korean budget; and took over the administra- 
tion of justice and of the prisons, whilst assuming 
the cost of these departments as a charge upon the 
Japanese Treasury. 

The period of administrative control and par- 
ticipation was brought to an end by the Japanese 
annexation of Korea in 1910. ‘The circumstances 
which led to this step have been dealt with in the 
historical section of Chapter II. 

Simultaneously with the annexation of the 
country the Government-General of Korea was 
established, on August 29, 1910. It was not, 
however, until September 30, 1910, that the 
Organic Regulations of the Government-General 
were promulgated by an Imperial Japanese Or- 


86 THE NEW KOREA 


dinance which made them effective as from the 
following day. 

These Regulations provided for the appoint- 
ment of a Governor-General, and of a Vice 
Governor-General; and for the erection of a 
Government-General to consist of the following 
six departments: Secretariat; General Affairs; 
Home Affairs; Finance; Agriculture, Commerce, 
and Industry; and Justice. Provision was made 
for the executive, administrative, technical, and 
clerical services; and an annual budget was pre- 
scribed as the basis of the financial system. 

The Organic Regulations have been amended 
from time to time as experience indicated the 
necessity. Before describing the organization of 
the Government of Korea as it now exists a few 
paragraphs may be devoted to the form it as- 
sumed at the end of the first year after the crea- 
tion of the Government-General. 

At the head of the Government was the 
Governor-General, who conducted public affairs 
through the instrumentality of two groups of 
offices—one classified as the Government-Gen- 
eral of Korea, the other as Affiliated Offices of 
the Government-General. ‘The organization of 
these two groups at the end of 1911 is exhibited 
in the following table: 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 87 
PERSONNEL OF THE GOVERNMENT-GENERAL, 1911 


High Subordi- 


: nate Total 
Officials Officials 
Government-General: 

Secretariat, os ak ea bee 5 5 10 
Department of General Affairs 13 116 129 
Department of Home Affairs. . 26 140 166 
Department of Finance....... 30 142 172 

Department of Agriculture,... 
Commerce, and Industry... 23 66 89 
Department of Justice....... 4 16 20 
Total, Government-General. 101 485 586 

Affiliated Offices: 

Courts, Police, Prisons....... 363 811 1,174 
Local Government........... 404 2,321 2,725 
Railway Bureau ee e.c.. ks 55 405 460 
Communications Bureau..... 39 1,005 1,044 
Land Survey Bureau......... 29 1,069 1,098 
Government Schools......... 24 91 115 
Customs Service............. 17 245 262 
Hospital and Medical School. . 15 28 43 
Model Matmiwit.. . seckk a dene’. 13 52 65 
Monopoly Bureau........... 4 43 47 
Priiting, Bureau wae. lene +6 3 22 25 
Bureau of Ancient Customs... 6 8 14 
Government Lumber Station. . 5 16 21 
Government Coal Mine...... 2 5 f 
GCentraliCouncil tii ckons sees. eae 2 2 
Total, Affiliated Offices..... 979 6,123 7,102 
Grand totals vis da 1,080 6,608 7,688 





All the items in the foregoing table are, in a 
broad sense, self-explanatory, except “Central 
Council.” This body was created at the time of 
the annexation, 1910, for the purpose of provid- 
ing the Japanese Governor-General with a 
Korean advisory committee, which he could con- 
sult in regard to administrative measures. ‘The 


88 THE NEW KOREA 


Vice President and all members of the Council 
were chosen from the ranks of the Korean no- 
bility, gentry, and officialdom. The president of 
the Council, the chief secretary, and the secre- 
taries were chosen from the higher ranks of the 
Japanese officials attached to the Government- 
General. 

The members of the Council were given hon- 
orary official rank; but as they were not to be 
classed as Government servants, they were not 
included in the official figures from which the 
foregoing table was compiled. The actual num- 
ber of Koreans in the Council at the end of 1911 
was 71; and the Japanese staff of the Council 
consisted of one president, one chief secretary, 
one assistant secretary, and one interpreter- 
secretary. 


Provincial Government 


By Imperial Ordinance No. 357, promulgated 
on September 10, 1910, provision was made for 
local government in Korea. ‘The country was 
divided into thirteen provinces. ‘The Organic 
Regulations for Provincial Government estab- 
lished a central authority in each province, headed 
by a Provincial Governor, and equipped with the 
administrative staff necessary to conduct the pro- 
vincial business connected with Finance, Medical 
and Sanitary Service, Police, Education, Har- 
bors, Forestry, Public Works, and so on. 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 89 


Each province was subdivided into districts of 
three types—municipal prefectures, rural coun- 
ties, and insular districts. The last-named group 
comprised two of the larger islands lying off the 
coast of Korea. 

As originally designed, the Government of 
Korea presented the following administrative 
pattern: 


1 Government-General, 
13 Provincial Governments, 
12 Municipal Prefectures, 
218 Rural Counties, and 
2 Insular Districts. 


The problem presented to Japan by its respon- 
sibility for the Government of Korea was one of 
extreme complexity. The task had neither that 
kind of simplicity which exists where a powerful 
and “superior” race assumes control of a people 
low in the scale of civilization, weak in physical 
resources, and devoid of the sentiment of nation- 
alism, nor that kind of simplicity which exists 
when a mere transfer of political control occurs 
between two peoples of somewhat similar eco- 
nomic and social status. | 

In a word, the problem was neither that of 
England ruling the native tribes of New Guinea, 
nor that of Italy taking over the Austrian admin- 
istration of Fiume. 

The situation was, in fact, almost without 


90 THE NEW KOREA 


precedent in modern times. Measured by the 
standards of Asiatic civilization the people of 
Korea constituted an advanced race; like the 
Japanese they owed much of their culture to 
China; unlike the Japanese they had been little 
affected by the political and economic progress of 
the Western world. Down to the middle of the 
nineteenth century the description ‘Hermit 
Kingdom” would have applied with equal force 
to Japan and to Korea. Each country possessed 
an ancient religion, an ancient philosophy, an 
ancient culture, an ancient aristocracy, and an 
ancient social organization. If the two countries 
had been compared at that time on the basis of 
their national evolution as Asiatic states it would 
have been impossible to attribute to the Koreans 
any inherent inferiority to their Japanese neigh- 
_ bors. 

At the present time a comparison of such a 
character would be wholly irrelevant to any prac- 
tical issue. Since 1858 Japan has become 
westernized. If the process has conferred upon 
her many of the alleged advantages of Western 
progress, it has also infected her with the many 
evils which appear to be inseparable from the 
Western type of civilization. Her own problems 
are now those of the West; their solutions will be 
found, if at all, by adopting Western methods 
and by improving upon them, not by attempting 
to make Asiatic theories and Asiatic practices 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 91 


serve the necessities of a modern society of the 
Western type. 

For my own part, having spent a number of 
years in various parts of Asia, I am unable to 
entertain the conviction, so commonly held in 
Europe and in the Americas, that Western 
civilization is superior to that of the East. But 
the question now before me is not one into which 
any speculations of this kind can enter. It is that 
of describing the Japanese administrative sys- 
tem in Korea, as an example of an attempt to 
govern an Asiatic dependency by Western 
methods. 

For the purposes of such a discussion it is 
essential that two separate subjects should be 
kept separate—the right of Japan to govern 
Korea, and the way in which Japan is actually 
governing Korea. ‘The former subject is one of 
great interest and importance, viewed from the 
standpoint of Imperialism as a phenomenon of 
statecraft; but it can receive no more than inci- 
dental treatment—as it does in the introductory 
chapter—in a volume devoted to a discussion of 
matters subsequent to the acquisition of a de- 
pendency. 

Any description of the Government of Korea, 
as it is now constituted, must start from the fact 
that Japan took over the responsibility in 1910, 
that she was confronted immediately by the con- 
dition of the country as it then was, and that in 


92 THE NEW KOREA 


view of that condition she had to establish a Gov- 
ernment, formulate a public policy, and construct 
an administrative machine. 

Approaching these tasks from the base line of 
her own experience of half a century under a 
westernized Constitution, she found that the m- 
mediate situation was full of difficulty; but that, 
on a long view of her undertaking, the future 
held out the possibility of a success at least as 
great as that achieved by any other nation in the 
direction of governing dependencies. 

The chief difficulty with which the newly- 
formed Government-General was faced was that 
in respect of modernizing the public administra- 
tion of the country it could count upon little aid 
from the past. The existing body of Korean 
officials were for the most part indifferent, and in 
some part violently hostile, to reform along 
Western lines; the mal-administration which, by 
common consent, had for many years character- 
ized the Government of the native Yi Dynasty, 
had affected adversely the whole of the Korean 
public service; the economic stability of the coun- 
try had been wrecked by an unsound system of 
taxation and by a debased currency; means of 
communication were wretched; the country dis- 
tricts were overrun by bandits; banking facilities 
were inadequate for the development of com- 
merce and industry; above all, the Korean people 
had been reduced by many years of stupid mis- 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 93 


government and oppression to a state of patient 
lethargy. 

Even if there be attributed to Japan no higher 
motive than that of making a profitable invest- 
ment out of the annexation of Korea, the pursuit 
of such an aim could only end in success if the 
general condition of the country was improved. 

The general policy through which this im- 
provement was to be achieved was announced in 
a Proclamation issued on August 29, 1910, by 
Viscount Masakata Terauchi, the Japanese 
Resident-General. The Proclamation made of- 
ficial announcement of the annexation, and it 
was supplemented by a statement in the form of 
general instructions to the high Japanese officials 
who would be responsible for the administration 
of Korea until the Government-General had been 
organized. 

Divested of the rhetorical phrases which are to 
be found in all documents of this character, the 
Proclamation outlined a clear policy. 

(1) To afford relief to the people by aban- 
doning the Government’s claim on unpaid Jand 
taxes, by making a reduction of twenty per cent 
in the land tax about to fall due, by making a 
donation of seventeen million yen (about 
$8,500,000) from the Imperial Japanese Trea- 
sury for promoting education and for the relief 
of famine and other disasters. 

(2) To establish law and order throughout 


94 THE NEW KOREA 


the country, in order that life and property 
might be secure and the people supplied with an 
incentive to industry. 

(3) To improve the means of communication 
and transportation, thus aiding material de- 
velopment whilst affording occupation to large 
numbers of Koreans. 

(4) The creation of a Council of responsible 
and experienced Koreans to be consulted with 
reference to proposed administrative measures. 

(5) The establishment of a charity hospital 
in each province to extend and supplement the 
work of the Central Hospital at Seoul, and of 
the three charity hospitals, institutions which 
had been put in operation by the Japanese be- 
fore annexation. 

(6) The extension of educational facilities 
and the adoption of an educational policy which 
should “instil mto the minds of the young men 
the detestation of idleness and the love of real 
work, thrift and diligence.” 

(7) The guaranty of freedom of religious be- 
lief. The paragraph in the Proclamation of 
Annexation which deals with this matter was 
framed as follows: 


The freedom of religious belief is recognized in 
all civilized countries. There is, indeed, nothing to 
be said against anybody trying to gain spiritual 
peace by believing in whatever religious faith he or 
she considers to be true. But those who engage in 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 95 


strife on account of sectarian differences or take part 
in politics or pursue political intrigues under the 
name of religious propaganda, will injure good cus- 
toms and manners and disturb the public order, and, 
as such, will be dealt with by law. There is no doubt, 
however, that a good religion, be 1t Buddhism, or 
Confucianism, or Christianity, has as its aim the 
spiritual and material improvement of mankind, and 
in this not only does it not conflict with the adminis- 
tration of Government, but really helps it in attain- 
ing the purpose it has in view. Consequently all 
religions shall be treated equally and, further, due 
protection and facilities shall be accorded to their 
legitimate propagation. 


The Instructions issued to Japanese officials at 
the time of annexation include a paragraph which 
is quoted in full here, because it discloses the fact 
that up to that time the relations between the 
Japanese and the Koreans had been marked by 
an attitude of contempt towards the natives, and 
that the Resident-General was fully aware of the 
obstacles which such an attitude would place in 
the way of his general policy of conciliation and 
development. 


The aim and purpose of the annexation is to con- 
solidate the bonds uniting the two countries, to re- 
move all causes for territorial and national discrimi- 
nations, necessarily existing between separate powers, 
in order that the mutual welfare and happiness of 
the two peoples may be promoted. Consequently, 
should the Japanese people regard the annexation 


96 


THE NEW KOREA 


as a result of the conquest of a weak country by a 
stronger one, and should speak and act under such 
an illusion in an overbearing and undignified manner 
they would act in a spirit contrary to that in which 
the present step has been taken. 

Japanese settlers in Korea seem hitherto to have 
considered that they were living in a foreign land, 
and have often fallen into the mistake of adopting 
a superior attitude toward the people of the country. 
If, in connection with the inauguration of the new 
order of things, they were to increase their self-con- 
ceit, and were to subject the people just incorporated 
into the Empire to any sort of insult, they would 
arouse ill-feeling, with the result that in everything 
they would be in collision with the natives, and the 
opportunity would be denied of establishing an in- 
timate relation between the two peoples, which would 
be an unmeasurable calamity for the future. It is 
opportune that things have now assumed a new 
aspect. Let the Japanese settlers take this occasion 
to change their ideas and their attitude toward the 
people of Korea. Let them always bear in mind that 
they are our brothers, and treat them with sympathy 
and friendship, thus, by mutual help and co-opera- 
tion, enabling both peoples to contribute their share 
to the growth and progress of the whole Empire. 


The Present Organization of the Government 


of Korea 
Starting with the organization briefly de- 


scribed in the foregoing pages, the passage of 
time and the extension of governmental activities 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 97 


pointed to the necessity of effecting a number of 
changes in the routine of public business. Both 
as to methods and as to personnel experience 
served as a guide to a number of adjustments 
and reforms which, in the aggregate, have 
brought the administrative system to the highest 
state of efficiency attained since the annexation. 

The actual development of administrative work 
in Korea, in the more important branches, is 
shown in the following table: 


PuBLic EXPENDITURES ON VARIOUS OBJECTS 


(In yen. One yen=50 cents U. S.) 


Actual Actual 
Outlay Outlay 


Increase 


1911 1920 ve 
Central Administration 2,771,753 | 6,306,518 127 
Local Administration 3,901,735 | 8,902,995 128 
Courts and Prisons 2,372,951 | 6,816,139 187 
2,127,653 | 19,757,048 820 
893,684 | 2,793,942 212 
Construction: buildings, 
roads, bridges, railroads 14,401,000 | 35,620,104 147 
Research: chietly relrting to in- 
dustry, and natural resources. 264,553 | 1,969,010 645 





Allowing for certain minor changes in admin- 
istrative organization effected between the years 
1910 and 1919, Korea was, in effect, governed for 
the ten years following annexation under the 
provisions of the Organic Regulations of the 
Government-General, which were promulgated 


98 THE NEW KOREA 


on September 30, 1910, and went into effect on 
the following day. 

On August 19, 1919, an Imperial Ordinance 
was promulgated on the subject of the reorgan- 
ization of the Government-General of Korea; 
and was put in force the same day. The general 
purpose of the reorganization is set forth in the 
following quotation from the Rescript: 


We are persuaded that the state of development 
now reached in Korea calls for certain reforms in 
the administrative organization of the Government- 
General; and We hereby issue our Imperial command 
that such reforms be put into operation. The meas- 
ures thus taken are solely designed to facilitate the 
working of administration and to secure enlightened 
and efficient government, in pursuance of Our settled 
policy, and for the purpose of meeting the altered 
needs of the country. 


The instrument through which the Imperial 
Rescript was to be made effective was a revised 
“Organic Regulations of the Government-Gen- 
eral” published at the same time as the Rescript. 
The revised Regulations embodied all amend- 
ments made from time to time since the issue of 
the original Regulations, and such additions of 
new matter as were needed to give effect to the 
Rescript. 

The organization of Government in Korea, as 
fixed by the Regulations of 1919 is described in 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 99 


the following pages. The administration of 
government, that is to say the work performed 
by the organization, is described in the chapters 
following this. 

At the head of the Government is the Gov- 
ernor-General, appointed by the Emperor of 
Japan, and directly responsible to him for the 
administration of government in Korea. Until 
1919 it was obligatory that the Governor-Gen- 
eral be selected from the Japanese military estab- 
lishment. The new Regulations abolished this 
restriction, and made civil officials also eligible 
for the appointment. 

Next in rank is the Vice Governor-General, 
sometimes described as Director of Civil Admin- 
istration. His duties resemble those performed 
by the Secretary General in Java, and by the 
Colonial Secretary of a British Crown Colony. 
He is the Governor-General’s right-hand man, 
and is responsible for all administrative decisions, 
unless or until they require the formal sanction 
of the Governor-General. 

The Governor-General conducts the adminis- 
tration of Korea through the agency of two 
groups of administrative organs, one of which 
constitutes the Government-General, the other 
being designated as Affiliated Offices of the 
Government-General. 


100 THE NEW KOREA 


ORGANIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT-GENERAL 
(As of March, 1923) 
Central Offices 


_GOVERNOR-GENERAL’S SECRETARIAT: 

Private Secretaries Office, Councillors Office, In- 
spectors Office, Foreign Affairs Section, General Af- 
fairs Department, Public Works Department, Rail- 
ways Department. 


HOME AFFAIRS BUREAU: 
Local Administration Section, Social Works Sec- 
tion, Officials Training Institute. 


FINANCIAL BUREAU: 
Internal Revenue Section, Customs Section, Budget 
Section, Financial Section. 


INDUSTRIAL BUREAU: 

Agricultural Section, Afforestation Section— 
Branches, Fishery Section, Commercial and Indus- 
trial Section, Mining Section—Branches, Land In- 
vestigation Section, Geological Investigation Office, 
Fuel Laboratory, Commercial Museum. 


JUDICIAL BUREAU: 
Civil Section, Criminal Section, Prison Section. 


EDUCATIONAL BUREAU: 
School Affairs Section, Compiling Section, His- 

toric Remains Inquiry Office, Religious Section, 

Museum, Meteorological Observatory—Branches. 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 101 


POLICE BUREAU: 


Police Affairs Section, High Police Section, Peace 
Preservation Section, Sanitary Section, Export Cat- 
tle Inspecting Station. 


Affiliated Offices 


CENTRAL COUNCIL: 


General Affairs Section, Investigation Section. 


PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT: 


Governor’s Secretariat, Internal Affairs Depart- 
ment, Financial Department, Police Department, 
Municipalities—Districts—Islands, Charity Hospi- 
tals, Police Stations. 


POLICE TRAINING INSTITUTE, 


COMMUNICATIONS BUREAU: 


General Affairs Section, Supervising Section, Ac- 
counts Section, Engineering Section, Electric Works 
Section, Marine Affairs Section—Branches, Special 
Water-power Inquiry Section, Postal Money Order 
and Savings Supervising Office, Post Offices— 
Branches, Employees Training Institute, Sailors 
Training Institute. 


MARINE COURT. 


MONOPOLY BUREAU: 


General Affairs Section, Management Section, 
Manufacturing Section, Branch Offices. 


102 THE NEW KOREA 


CUSTOMS: 


General Affairs Section, Surveillance Section, Cus- 
toms Duty Section, Inspecting Section, Branch 
Offices, Coastguard Stations. 


LAW COURTS: 


Supreme Court—Procurators Office, Appeal Courts 
—Procurators Offices, Local Courts—Procurators 
Offices, Local Branch Courts. 


PRISONS——BRANCHES. 
PUBLIC DEPOSITORIES., 


LUMBER UNDERTAKING STATION: 

General Affairs Section, Management Section, Saw 
Mill, Branch Offices. 
GOVERNMENT-GENERAL HOSPITAL: 


Medical Departments, Medicine Section, General 
Affairs Section, Nurses and Midwives Training In- 
stitute. 


GOVERNMENT CHARITY ASYLUM: 


Orphans Department, Blind and Deaf-Mutes De- 
partment, General Affairs Section. 


MODEL FARM: 


Branches, Sericultural Experimental Station, Seri- 
cultural School for Girls. 


CENTRAL LABORATORY. 
CATTLE-DISEASE SERUM LABORATORY. 
FISHERIES EXPERIMENTAL STATION. 


FORESTRY EXPERIMENTAL STATION. 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 103 


PERSONNEL OF THE GOVERNMENT-GENERAL 


The following table shows the number of officials of the Government- 
General engaged in each branch of administration. The figures refer to 
the fiscal year 1922-23. 


High Lees 


2 nate Total 
Officials Officials 


The Government-General: 


General Secretariat..............-. 52 861 413 
Bureau of Home Affairs............ 8 82 40 
Bureau of Finance................. 11 51 62 
Bureawor industry 77. we ae a 48 226 274 
Bureau of Justice!’ soo. Se ss ed 5 20 25 
Bureau of Education............... 11 35 46 
Roreayw of Police ope te in 24 49 73 
LOtARY kk Coe eer UR aie este sieis 159 774 933 

Offices Affiliated to the Government- 

General: 

Central Council wuie gee vane 3 9 12 
Higher Land Investigation Committee]........ 1 1 
Forest Investigation Committee..... 5 6 11 
Bureau of Communications......... 51 1,502 1,553 
Bureau of Monopoly............... 35 401 436 
COSEOIOS Stes on deere ee tied ote este alge 1l 345 356 
PUPLEINS KOOURL sala ec tala a ates 12 5 17 
Courts of lst and 2nd Instance..... 258 650 908 
EPISONS oes ae One es eee es 22 140 162 
Government Higher Schools........ 84 266 350 

Provincial Government and its Sub- 
ordinate Agencies............... 487 4,853 5,340 
Government Lumber Business...... 11 147 158 
Government Hospitals and Asylums. 22 47 69 
Heijo Coal Mine Station........... 4 13 17 
Modeli Karn yn truth vee ie uae edcare 12 37 49 
Experimental Stations............. 10 39 49 
Police Training Institute........... 5 y 12 
Totals cots eee Ral a clas Soe 1,032 8,468 9,500 
Grand ‘total? oss 3. oe ei 1,191 G,242 | 10,433 





The terrible economic effects of the Japanese 
earthquake, 1923, made it necessary to adopt 


104 THE NEW KOREA 


throughout the Empire a policy of drastic re- 
trenchment in government expenditures. One of 
the measures carried out in Korea was the reduc- 
tion by nearly twenty-five per cent of the number 
of government officials. 


The Civil Service 
Appointment and Salary— 


Appointment to the government service in 
Korea is made in conformity with very elaborate 
rules and regulations, which, in the main, follow 
the lines of the Imperial Japanese services. 
Provision is made for a lower and for a higher 
examination of candidates, for salaries and allow- 
ances, for promotion, for pensions, for leave of 
absence, and for the appointment, resignation, 
and dismissal of officials. 

Civil servants are classified by rank and by 
grade in the rank. The highest ranks are those 
of Shinnin and Chokunin; the next lower rank is 
Sonin; and the lowest rank attached to any offi- 
cial of the Government-General is Hannin. 
Promotion goes from grade to grade within the 
rank, and from rank to rank. For the appoint- 
ment, resignation, or dismissal of civil servants of 
Sonin rank the Governor-General obtains the 
Imperial assent, through the Prime Minister of 
Japan; in respect of persons of Hannin rank the 
Governor-General decides. 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 105 


The total salary of an official is made up of his 
regular salary, and his additional salary (for 
colonial service). In the Shinnin and Chokunin 
ranks the yearly total salaries range from that of 
the Governor-General, 12,000 yen, down to 6300 
yen, which is paid to Chief Public Procurators of 
Local Courts and to Presidents of Professional 
Schools. In the Sonin rank the range is between 
6300 yen and 1260 yen; and in the Hannin rank 
between 8840 yen and 652 yen, according to 
grade and nature of employment. 

In addition to the foregoing salaries there are 
three kinds of special allowances: residential 
allowance, where a residence is not provided; 
traveling allowances, approximately equal to 
out-of-pocket expenses; and bonuses. ‘There is 
no fixed rate for the bonus, but it is usually be- 
tween 80 per cent and 100 per cent of a month’s 
pay. ‘The general rule is that the lower the pay 
the higher the rate of the bonus. 


Pensions— 


The pension regulations are too elaborate to 
permit of detailed description in a volume of this 
size. The annual pension is based on the salary 
received at the time of retirement and on the 
number of years served. For one retiring after 
serving fifteen years and less than sixteen years 
the pension is one-third of his annual salary at 


106 THE NEW KOREA 


the time of retirement. For each additional full 
year served, up to forty years, one-one hundred 
and fiftieth of the annual salary is added. 

The pensions are paid from the public funds; 
but each civil servant above the Hannin rank 
must pay one per cent of his yearly salary to the 
pension fund. 

Special provisions are made to cover the cases 
in which an official dies in office after fifteen years’ 
service, or dies in execution of his duty with less 
than fifteen years’ service, or dies after retirement 
on pension. These provisions exhibit a wise gen- 
erosity, which other governments would do well 
to emulate. In any of the foregoing circum- 
stances the pension is classed as an allowance-in- 
aid. The amount is fixed at one-half of the an- 
nual pension received by or due to the deceased 
at the time of his death; but if death occurred 
while or through executing his official duty, the 
allowance is increased to four-fifths; and when 
death occurs through injury or disease caused by 
war or by a similar contingency the total amount 
of the pension is paid to the surviving beneficiary. 

The allowance-in-aid is claimable by a relative 
of the deceased in the following order of prece- » 
dence: (1) wife; (2) children under age, in the 
order of their rights as heirs; (8) husband, in 
case the deceased is a married woman; (4) father, 
but the father-in-law claims before the natural 
father if the deceased was an adopted son or 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 107 


daughter; (5) mother, with the same proviso; 
(6) children above age; (7) grandfather; (8) 
grandmother. 

At the time of the annexation special regula- 
tions were framed for the treatment of Korean 
officials, placing them in a less favorable position 
than that of the Japanese officials. Governor- 
General Saito, shortly after his appointment, and 
in conformity with the policy of non-discrimina- 
tion announced in an Imperial Rescript, annulled 
all the ordinances relating to the status and sal- 
aries of Korean officials, and applied in their 
stead the ordinances applicable to Japanese offi- 
cials, thus removing a grievance which had been 
detrimental to the civil service. At the same time 
revision was made in the educational regulations 
which had the effect of making Korean teachers 
eligible for appointment as principals of public 
common schools—posts which up to that date, 
October, 1919, had been strictly reserved for 
Japanese. In the following year an ordinance 
was promulgated removing the restrictions which 
had hitherto existed on the authority exercised by 
Korean judges and public procurators. 


CHAPTER V 
GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 
II. Locat ADMINISTRATION 


One of the most important elements in the new 
policy inaugurated in 1919 on Viscount Saito’s 
assumption of the Governor-Generalship was 
that of administrative decentralization. Indeed 
it may be said that the backbone of the new policy 
was that the Koreans should, in the largest pos- 
sible measure consistent with the country’s po- 
litical status, learn to take part in the administra- 
tion of their own public affairs. 

I have had before me a great deal of material 
describing the extension of local self-government 
in Korea; but the whole subject is so fully and 
lucidly treated in the Annual Report on the 
Administration of Chosen, 1922-1923, that I have 
transcribed practically the whole of this chapter 
from that document. 


Introductory— 

The administrative divisions of the Peninsula 
were in a very confused state prior to the annexa- 
tion of the country in 1910. In addition to prov- 

108 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 109 


inces, urban prefectures, districts, and villages, 
there existed a number of other district organs, 
such as police and financial organs, local resi- 
dencies for resident Japanese, Japanese munici- 
palities, foreign settlements, Chinese exclusive 
settlements, and school associations for the edu- 
cation of Japanese children. The mixed relations 
of those organs making it impossible to maintain 
uniformity and efficiency in matters of local ad- 
ministration, these differences all required to be 
adjusted simultaneously at the time of annexa- 
tion. But during the time of transition, when 
everything else was necessarily unsettled, sudden 
radical changes were avoided as far as possible, 
and above all the question of the disposal of the 
settlement system was held over, as it required 
most careful negotiation with the powers inter- 
ested. So, when the Government-General was 
established, the first step toward general reform 
in the local organization was to abolish all local 
residencies and financial bureaus, and to establish 
a financial department in each province, while 
giving prefectural and district magistracies part 
management of financial affairs. At the time of 
the enforcement of this readjustment the local 
administrative organs comprised 138 provincial 
governments, 12 municipal and 317 district 
magistracies, and 4,322 village offices, presided 
over by governors, prefects, sub-prefects, and 
headmen. 


110 THE NEW KOREA 


Although the administrative boundaries of 
municipalities, counties, and villages were left 
much the same as before the annexation, there 
were marked differences among them in area, 
population, and resources, and this was especially 
the case with villages, so that some villages bore 
much too disproportionate a burden of taxation, 
causing not a little difficulty in the execution of 
administrative duties. After careful study it 
was decided to amalgamate certain villages and 
alter the boundaries of others in order to secure 
greater uniformity and convenience in local ad- 
ministration. Accordingly, the area of each 
municipality was reduced to its natural limits by 
taking from it all attached villages, while the area 
of each district was restricted to about 40 square 
7 containing about 10,000 people, and that of 
each village to about 4 square 7i* containing 
about 800 families. This readjustment of areas 
left the number of municipalities as before at 12, 
but reduced districts from 317 to 220, and vil- 
lages from 4,322 to 2,504. All this was done to 
promote their administration, curtail local ex- 
penditure, and secure a fair distribution of the 
burden of taxation on the people. 

On the other hand, Saishu and Utsuryo are 
islands so distant from the mainland that their 
administration could not be smoothly carried on 
owing to difticulty of communication. So in 


* 1 square ri=5.95 square miles. 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION ry 


May, 1915, they were made separate districts, 
and the governor of each was empowered to issue 
all necessary instructions for the good of the 
island, and was also made head of the island po- 
lice. Below are given the local administrative 
divisions as at present constituted: 


4 
Divisions 


Seat of 


Province | Area ran Provincial 


Percent 


Munici-| Dis- | Vil- | Govern- 
Area | palities | tricts | lages | ment 


Sq. ri 
830.83 
North Chusei. 480.93 
South Chusei. 525.59 
North Zenra.. 553.13 
South Zenra. . 900. 41 
North Keisho.| 1,231.16 
797 .78 
1,084.82 
South Heian.. 967 .'70 
North Heian..} 1,844.24 
2,702.79 
2,073 .36 
North Kankyo| 1,319.19 


Total 


249 | Keijo 
110 | Seishu 
175 | Koshu 
188 | Zenshu 
269 | Kwoshu 
272 | Taikyu 
257 | Shinshu 
Kaishu 
Heijo 
Gishu 
Shunsen 
Kanko 


CO he e © Od =F Or CO S CO OO 09 Or 
SCAMAWAAADWS ONE CO 





A Provincial Governor, while being held re- 
sponsible to the Governor-General, executes laws 
and ordinances, supervises the administration of 
his province, controls all public corporations, 
and is also authorized to issue provincial ordi- 
nances. Formerly, the police organs existing in 
a province were entirely separate from all other 
local administrative organs, and the Governor 


112 THE NEW KOREA 


had no power whatever over them, and in all 
police and sanitary affairs the head of the provin- 
cial police alone could set on foot measures 
deemed necessary, though he was required to ob- 
tain the approval of the Governor before issuing 
instructions. But with the progress of the times 
and the development of local administration it 
was recognized that a Provincial Governor ought 
to be in control of all police and sanitary affairs, 
so when the gendarme system was abolished in 
August, 1919, the police were transferred to the 
control of the Provincial Governors, and in each 
province a Third Department was instituted, 
composed of police, medical, and quarantine offi- 
cers, and this was later renamed the Police 
Affairs Department. During the transition 
period special importance was placed on the 
unity and consistency of general administrative 
business, and a policy of centralization was ad- 
hered to, so that the powers of a Provincial Goy- 
ernor were somewhat circumscribed. As im- 
provement in local administration was effected, 
and each year saw increase in official business, it 
was seen that this policy was losing in efficiency, 
so one of decentralization was gradually adopted, 
and following on the general revision in August, 
1919, the powers entrusted to a Provincial Gov- 
ernor were by degrees widened. 

After the annexation careful investigation was 
made concerning the revision of the existing sys- 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 113 


tem, and in March of 1914 it was found possible 
to abolish the foreign settlement system by agree- 
ment with the nations interested. In the follow- 
ing month, new regulations relating to urban 
prefectures and school associations came into 
force, by which both were recognized as juridical 
persons, the jurisdictional district of the settle- 
ments being incorporated into that of their re- 
spective urban prefectures, while all business con- 
cerning the education of Japanese children was 
transferred to the hands of school associations 
formed within each prefectural jurisdiction. In 
this way the long pending question of the adjust- 
ment and unification of the local administrative 
system was brought to a satisfactory conclusion. 

As a consequence of the revision of the system 
all business regarding the registration of per- 
petual leases, hitherto conducted by the consular 
representatives of the Powers concerned, was 
turned over to the law courts. Perpetual leases 
being particular real rights, the provision of 
ownership was applied correspondingly, and it 
was recognized that they could be made objects 
of other rights. Further, foreign lease-holders 
of land in perpetuity were given the option of 
converting their leases into actual ownership, 
while those perferring to make no alteration in 
their lands were required to bear as a rule taxes 
and other public charges on a par with actual 
landowners. 


114 THE NEW KOREA 


Since the enforcement of the local adminis- 
trative readjustment, steady progress has been 
made in all lines of society, in industry, educa- 
tion, communications, and commerce, as well as 
in the various official functions. Especially note- 
worthy has been the recent development of local 
interests. So the reorganization of the Govern- 
ment-General being effected, it was decided to 
introduce greater reforms into the administration 
of the country, and in particular to aim at decen- 
tralization of power, so that a system of local 
self-government might be firmly established in 
the future. Accordingly, as the first step in this 
direction, in July, 1920, further amendment was 
made in the existing local system, providing for 
the creation of advisory councils for public cor- 
porations, the members to be either appointed or 
elected, in order to give advice about local 
finance and other important matters. By these 
organs it is hoped that popular sentiment will 
be reflected in the local administration, and 
that through them more complete organs of local 
self-government will gradually be evolved. 


Formation of Local Councils— 


After a year or so of careful inquiry into the 
subject the revised system of local administration 
was at last proclaimed on July 29, 1920, and 
advisory bodies were formed for the administra- 
tion of provinces, municipalities, districts, and 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 115 


villages. Of course these organs were far from 
being real local self-governing bodies, since 
Chosen was still not in a condition to justify the 
immediate enforcement of a complete system of 
local self-government, and the people needed a 
course of training in the transaction of public 
affairs. Still, they marked an important step 
forward in the right direction. 

In the local administrative system hitherto ob- 
taining in Chosen there existed municipalities and 
villages as the lowest magistracies, the former in 
cities and towns and the latter in rural communi- 
ties. Besides, there were organs called “the pub- 
lic common school expenditure” for the benefit of 
Korean children, school associations for the 
education of Japanese children, and water- 
utilization associations dealing with irrigation. 
Of these the two last only possessed anything of 
a self-governing aspect. Although the munici- 
palities had their own advisory councils, and 
specially designated villages had advisers at- 
tached to them, they were composed of compara- 
tively few members, and all were nominated by 
the Government, so it could not be said that they 
really represented popular desires and ideas. On 
the other hand, the prefects were always govern- 
ment officials, and even village headmen were 
appointed by the Government. ‘Then, too, the 
public common school expenditure was under the 
management of prefects, sub-prefects, and island 


116 THE NEW KOREA 


governors, whilst provincial expenditure was 
supervised exclusively by Provincial Governors. 
In addition, each province had three councillors 
and each city, district, and island two councillors, 
yet these men being appointed by the Govern- 
ment from among a few men of influence, and 
their posts being merely honorary, they too could 
hardly be considered representative of popular 
sentiment, so a revision of the local system was 
imperatively necessary that the way might be 
opened for expression of the popular will, and it 
was effected in the followmg manner: 

In revising the organization of municipal ad- 
visory councils it was arranged that the members 
should be elected by popular vote instead of 
being appointed by the Government, and, at the 
same time, all villages were to be provided with 
advisory councils for discussion of village finances 
and other important affairs. Since, however, the 
elective system was quite new to the Koreans in 
general and, if enforced in all villages without 
exception, might become the source of endless 
disputes and confusion, it was arranged that only 
in specially selected villages should the members 
of the advisory council be elected by popular 
vote, and that in all other villages the appoint- 
ment of the councils should be left to the dis- 
cretion of the district or island magistrates who, 
in making appointments, were to take into ac- 
count the opinions of the principal inhabitants in 
their districts. 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION af Ig 


Public common school expenditure, so-called, 
existed only for providing an elementary educa- 
tion for Korean children. But new regulations 
were framed to deal with all affairs relating to 
the general education of Koreans throughout the 
country. ‘To meet the expenditure the authori- 
ties were empowered to levy school taxes, requisi- 
tion labor and goods, collect rents, raise public 
loans, and also form plans for consecutive ex- 
penditure. Then, as advisory organs, school 
councils were created. In cities the members are 
elected by popular vote, while in districts or 
islands they are appointed from among candi- 
dates elected by village councils. 

Further, as advisory organs to discuss provin- 
cial budgets, etc., provincial councils were cre- 
ated, the members of which are appointed by 
Provincial Governors from among candidates 
elected by municipal or village councils, as well 
as from among men of knowledge and repute. 

The revised local system came into effect on 
October 1, 1920, and the election of members of 
councils of municipalities and designated villages 
took place on November 20 following. At first 
the Koreans seemed to adopt a rather indifferent 
attitude, many of them evidently being duped by 
the seditious talk of agitators. However, as the 
election day drew near, inspired by the Japanese 
canvassing, they began to show great interest and 
enthusiasm, and many offered themselves as can- 


118 THE NEW KOREA 


didates, and the elections proceeded without a 
hitch. ‘The following list gives the result in 12 
municipalities and 24 specially designated vil- 
lages: 





MUNICIPALITIES 

Number Votes Percent- A ora 

of Voters Cast age Elected 
Japanese.) Uys 6,251 5,486 B81 pe 
Korean coun 4,713 3,122 66 of 

VILLAGES 
Number Votes Percent- Ae 
of Voters Cast age Elected 





The members elected were mostly leading per- 
sons in their localities. Especially creditable was 
it that the elected Koreans were all rising men 
with moderate ideas. Another very creditable 
thing was the fact that Japanese restricted the 
number of their own candidates by agreement 
_ among themselves, and that some elected Japan- 
ese resigned in favor of Koreans next to them 
at the polls, while not a few Koreans gave their 
votes for Japanese candidates. 

A little later, the members of councils of vil- 
lages other than those specially designated were . 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 119 


appointed, and in this way the election and 
appointment of members of all the municipal and 
village councils were successfully completed. 
The election and appointment of members of 
school councils in cities, districts, and islands, as 
well as those of provincial councils, were all com- 
pleted with equal success on December 20, 1920. 
The composition of these provincial councils is 
shown in the following list: 








Members Members Total 
Appointed Elected 
Japanese ey cc suns de 63 24 87 
ROP ear eee 56 219 275 
Totaly Vu vO ue ty 119 243 «| ~—s 368 


The first meetings of these councils after the 
reform initiated in the local administrative sys- 
tem were held between February and April of 
1921, and each proved fairly successful and was 
well attended. The discussions were very 
smoothly conducted and were marked by great 
enthusiasm. Indeed, during the sessions all 
showed a co-operative attitude, and laid before 
the authorities questions and opinions reflecting 
the popular will, to which the latter responded 
with the utmost sincerity. On the whole, the 
meetings ended to the great satisfaction of all 
concerned. 


120 THE NEW KOREA 


Inspection of Local Administration— 


In old Korea an institution existed for main- 
taining certain officials charged with the duty of 
going about incognito to inspect local administra- 
tion and check official oppression. ‘This was 
lauded as an excellent system under the Y1 
Dynasty, but these secret agents are said to have 
frequently abused their power by turning the 
misdeeds of local officials to their own profit. On 
the division between the judicature and executive 
being distinctly marked out, in 1907, officials 
were no longer able thus to abuse their power and 
oppress the people. However, in view of the fact 
that local public affairs had not only rapidly in- 
creased and become more complex in substance, 
and that the powers of Provincial Governors had 
been extended so as to carry on the administra- 
tion in a manner more fitted to local conditions, 
it was found imperative to institute thorough 
superintendence of their doings in order to see 
that enterprises undertaken were really adapted 
to the situation, and that they contributed to the 
promotion of the popular welfare. At the same 
time, it was considered necessary to secure closer 
connection between the central and local govern- 
ments in order to make the new administrative 
policy as effective as possible, and to probe fully 
popular sentiments. For these reasons a Local 
Administration Inspectorate was formed with a 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 121 


staff consisting of 2 chief inspectors, 5 special 
secretaries, and a number of clerks. 


Local Finance— 


At present the revenues of the provinces are 
mainly obtained by making additional levies on 
the land and urban land taxes, and by imposing 
household, market, abattoir and slaughtering, 
fishing, shipping, and vehicle taxes. ‘To those 
sources of revenue must be added the subsidies 
from the national treasury and receipts derived 
from Government undertakings. ‘The revenue 
thus obtained meets the outlays for education, 
sanitation, public works, industrial encourage- 
ment, etc., of a local nature. Besides, there is a 
certain amount of interest accruing from the Im- 
perial donation funds which is spent on philan- 
thropic undertakings. ‘The incidence and man- 
agement of local expenditure are much the same 
as those in Japan proper, but, unlike the mother 
country, from financial considerations the two 
items of local police and district office expendi- 
ture have been excluded from provincial budgets 
and are still borne by the national treasury. 

The Budgets for Local Finance are shown 
in the table on page 122. 

The local finance budget for 1925-26 makes a 
preliminary estimate of 22,567,529 yen for rev- 
enue, the proposed expenditures balancing at 
that figure. The most notable increases in ex- 











122 THE NEW KOREA 
Loca Finance Bupcets 
(In yen. 1 yen=50 cents U. S.) 
Description 1923 1922 1910 
Revenue: 
Additional Levy on Land and 
Urban Land Pax scecea ee ae 4,775,288 | 4,361,898 | 605,427 
Household and House Tax....... 4,817,992 | 4,801,493 
Market bax eee os aa ee eae 593,924 581,388 | 137,535 
. Abattoir and Slaughtering Tax... 664,622 684,630 | 241,347 
Pishingi lax ogy een 158,181 LOL OSO Hee 
Slipping: Taxes Vues poe aon oe 1,142 BLEEOR Rac ees 
Vehicle Pax yee naa Nalin 541,729 ASS SSS init 
Receipts from Imperial Donation 
Bids SNS er LION 917,439 O37; 2OS Mi ieee 
Subsidy from Central Government! 2,804,691 | 3,618,778 | 235,497 
Balance Transferred............ 1,714,847 | 1,360,725} 56,390 
Other Sources iis eb uy See ay 2,445,735 | 2,361,005 | 33,644 
ol Wn 8:5 UG RPE Ea Ud 2 a Eg 19,135,590 | 19,293,656 |1,309,7'70 
Expenditure: 
Civil Engineering............... 5,199,480 | 4,911,100] 303,464 
Industrial Encouragement....... 4,758,504! 4,310,867 | 104,458 
Affording Means of Livelihood...| 1,481,697] 1,340,684] ...... 
MOCUCALION Oe (Onis Ehak arene 5,581,195 | 6,698,395 | 164,238 
Sanitation and Hospitals........ 296,273 211,922| 35,281 
Relief and Charity.............. 31,304 33,880 3,600 
Provincial Councils............. 81,820 SS,07T ig sas 
Social Works: Cg an eT Me 359,798 485, OOO Ei dekh ccs we 
Transferred to Imperial Donation 
TACES of Re Ms rR 56,317 1D. SOO AT ocak Unt 
Miscellaneous) i.) ou 954,611 W71,794 | 135,265 
IRGACYVES ee cue a mae eA iL ails 334,591 369,606/ ...... 
LOU arte bolas nie eruntd einaeree 19,135,590 | 19,293,656 | 746,306 





penditure are those for education, which rises to 
seven million yen, and for sanitation and hos- 
pitals, which rises to two million yen. The latter 
item is of special significance, since it discloses an 
advance in local expenditure in public health 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 123 


from 212,000 yen in 1922 to nearly ten times that 
amount in 1926. 

On the revenue side one item alone calls for 
explanation—receipt from the Imperial Dona- 
tion Funds. These, amounting in all to 30,000,- 
000 yen were granted to Korea at the time of 
annexation, by the Imperial Japanese Treasury. 
Of the whole amount 17,398,000 yen were allot- 
ted to prefectures and districts as funds for such 
works as undertakings affording means of liveli- 
hood, educational works, and relief works. The 
funds are permanently in the care of the Provin- 
cial Governors, and the interest derived from 
them, aggregating 869,900 yen per annum, is de- 
voted to the above-mentioned works in the pro- 
portion of sixty, thirty, and ten per cent 
respectively. ‘These undertakings, carefully se- 
lected to accord with actual local conditions, have 
been established as widely as possible. 

On the expenditure side it is to be noted that 
enterprises at provincial expense come under five 
heads, viz., (1) public works, (2) sanitation and 
hospitals, (8) relief and charity, (4) industrial 
encouragement, and (5) education. Public 
works are primarily concerned with road con- 
struction and repairs, rivers, harbors, water- 
utilization, irrigation, land-clearing, ete. Sanita- 
tion occupies itself chiefly with vaccination, in- 
spection of carcasses, and also the building of 
isolation hospitals, public wells, street latrines, 


124 THE NEW KOREA 


etc. Relief and charity works take care of the 
sick or dying on the road and other needy people. 
Industrial encouragement takes up the develop- 
ment of local industries such as agriculture, seri- 
culture, forestry, fishery, weaving, paper manu- 
facture, etc., and, for agricultural improvement, 
seedling stations are now maintained by all the 
provinces after the example of Japan proper. 
These stations conduct experiments with various 
species, and distribute among the farmers im- 
proved seeds, seedlings, and livestock, while they 
give the training needed in farming, carry on 
inspection of all rice and beans for export in 
order to secure uniform quality, and also send out 
itinerant technical experts for the practical guid- 
ance of the country people. Besides, as economic 
crops the planting of American cotton and the 
sugar-beet is extensively encouraged. In seri- 
culture, the climatic conditions of Chosen being 
very favorable, remarkably good results have 
already rewarded this official encouragement, and 
to effect further improvement in it nurseries have 
been formed for the production of silkworm eggs 
of superior species, and stations for the combat- 
ing of diseases attacking the silkworm and for 
controlling the sale of silkworm eggs and mul- 
berry trees, and in addition, visiting experts are 
sent round to give the farmers proper sugges- 
tions for the betterment of their work. For for- 
estry and fishery a number of experts have spe- 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 125 


cially been appointed to instruct the people in 
these lines. Lastly, in education the establish- 
ment or maintenance of agricultural, industrial, 
and commercial schools of secondary grade is car- 
ried on, and by the aid of subsidies from the Im- 
perial Donation Funds elementary educational 
works also. 

Originally, enterprises with the Imperial mon- 
etary grant were of three kinds, but in view of 
the rapidly changing social conditions various 
social works have been added. Relief works are 
carried on in the time of calamities, giving succor 
to the sufferers by providing them with seed- 
grain, foodstuffs, huts, farming tools, ete. In 
educational works the aim is principally to sub- 
sidize elementary schools. Undertakings afford- 
ing means of livelihood are chiefly for those hav- 
ing no fixed occupation or property, so as to 
enable them to obtain permanent employment. 
For instance, to those too poor to enter the seri- 
cultural school, boarding expenses are allowed, 
and to those successfully completing the training 
course capital is furnished to enable them to start 
on their own occount. As social works, the estab- 
lishment of public markets, pawn-shops, bath- 
houses, lodging-houses, laundries, people’s lunch- 
eon-rooms, agencies for laborers, free medical 
treatment of the sick poor, and the care of 
orphans are extensively carried on. 


126 THE NEW KOREA 


Municipalities— 


At the time of annexation most of the urban 
prefectures were found in open ports, and in 
them Japanese municipalities, foreign settle- 
ments, and other local bodies existed side by side, 
each pursuing its own system, while for the man- 
agement of public business relating to Koreans 
no organ was provided, so that many. obstacles 
were encountered in conducting municipal ad- 
ministration. In April, 1914, therefore, new or- 
ganic regulations for urban prefectures were en- 
forced, and Koreans, Japanese and foreigners 
alike were brought under one uniform system. 

Prefectural Municipalities were then created 
as legal bodies in the principal cities in Chosen, 
and their respective jurisdictional districts were 
made to coincide with those prefectures estab- 
lished as state administrative divisions. The Pre- 
fects, who are appointed by the State, represent 
ex officio the inhabitants and conduct all munici- 
pal business, and the municipal councils act as 
their advisory organs. Until recently the mem- 
bers were appointed by the Provincial Governor 
subject to approval by the Governor-General, 
but as a result of the reorganization of the 
Government-General, and in response to the de- 
mands of the times, the members are now elected 
by popular vote so that the councils may be really 
representatives of the general public. 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 127 


The expenditure by municipalities was in prin- 
ciple to be defrayed with the income from rents, 
fees, and public properties, but these sources 
being inadequate the chief source of revenue is 
now found in municipal taxes, while receipts from 
rents and fees, municipal loans, and State and 
local subsidies follow in order. Municipal taxes 
eonsist of additional levies in the State taxes on 
urban land and the local taxes on buildings, and 
other special taxes of which the major are the 
business tax and the house tax. In imposing 
these taxes care is taken to avoid any pronounced 
increase in the burden on the residents, especially 
on the Koreans, so on the whole few complaints 
have been made; on the contrary, the income from 
municipal taxes improving year by year, the 
financial condition of the municipalities may 
safely be said to present a flourishing aspect. 

The aggregate annual revenue of the twelve 
municipalities of Chosen has risen from about 
two million yen in 1918 to about eight million in 
1922, the expenditure-estimates balancing at 
those figures. In practice the revenue shows a 
surplus over the expenditure, and this in 1923 
reached the substantial sum of 1,714,847 yen. 

The chief single source of municipal revenue is 
municipal taxation. The average per household 
in 1922 was 14.3 yen. ‘The average does not, 
however, represent the actual incidence of muni- 
cipal taxation, for the taxes are so framed that 


128 THE NEW KOREA 


Japanese and foreigners pay a much higher sum 
per household than do the Koreans. In 1922 the 
per household figures were for foreigners 26.1 
yen, for Japanese 32.4, afd for Koreans 5.2. 

Although there are many works that have to 
be undertaken and managed by municipalities, 
anything like sudden increase in the burden on 
the inhabitants, especially on the Koreans, has 
been avoided as far as possible, and works most 
urgently needed and requiring big expenditure 
have been undertaken by raising public loans. 
The more important works undertaken by the 
municipalities are (1) waterworks, (2) sewerage, 
(3) general and isolation hospitals, (4) social 
works, and (5) street, road, and bridge construc- 
tion and repair, scavengering, and maintenance 
of abattoirs, cemeteries, crematories, markets, 
parks, town halls, public libraries, and _ fire- 
brigades. 


Villages— 

In the days of the Korean Government village 
administration throughout the country was in a 
very confused state, no distinction being main- 
tained between public and private affairs, yet it 
was concerned with hardly anything beyond the 
collecting of State taxes and census-taking. So, 
on the present régime being instituted in 1910, 
organic regulations for local government were 
promulgated, and contained a specific provision 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 129 


respecting village headmen. By it a headman 
was to act as assistant to the district magistrate 
in conducting the administrative business in a vil- 
lage, while he was required to have a public office, 
or, if conducted at his own house, to set apart a 
room for public business only, and at the same 
time permanent clerks were appointed to village 
offices. Later on every district held occasional 
conferences of village headmen and formed an 
institute for village clerks, so that the better man- 
agement of their respective villages might be 
secured. 

Formerly, villages were not authorized to make 
a levy for anything outside salaries and office ex- 
penses, so that being in reality without financial 
power to conduct any public enterprise, those 
most necessary for their development could only 
be carried out by various private associations or 
as joint undertakings, and great lack of uni- 
formity was experienced. Accordingly, in 1914, 
the number of villages was reduced by one-half 
to give effect to financial readjustment, and, tak- 
ing into account gradual improvement in popular 
conditions as well as in village affairs, a new vil- 
lage system was finally instituted in 1917. In- 
deed, the adoption of this new system might be 
called an epoch-making event in the history of 
local administration, for by this villages for the 
first time were distinctly recognized as public 
bodies of some importance. 


130 THE NEW KOREA 


According to this system, villages are the low- 
est of the administrative divisions, and are local 
bodies conducting all public business within their 
jurisdictions, with village headmen as sole man- 
agers. The expenses of village offices are met by 
the income from levies, fees, and rents, but, by 
those villages specially designated by the Gov- 
ernment, loans can be floated for enterprises, and 
4 to 8 honorary advisers were appointed to each 
as consultants. 

After the reorganization of the Government- 
General in 1919 it was considered advisable to 
make further revision in the existing village sys- 
tem, and this was done in July, 1920. The most 
important revision was the creation of new vil- 
lage councils as advisory organs in all villages. 
Membership of these was made elective or nomi- 
native according to the standing of the village, 
and their function is principally to discuss village 
finances. 

At present the number of villages is 2,504, in- 
cluding 41 designated ones. ‘Their total expendi- 
ture figured in 1919 at some 6,093,000 yen and 
increased in the fiscal year 1922-23 to nearly 
16,654,000 yen, largely due to the growing ex- 
pansion of the various works with which they are 
charged. Public undertakings common to a 
majority of them are (1) the building of roads 
and bridges and the upkeep of ferry-boats and 
river-banks; (2) the holding of markets, and 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 131 


work in model forestry and farming; (3) the 
maintenance of cemeteries, crematories, abat- 
toirs, isolation hospitals, water supply, drainage, 
cleansing, and disinfection; and (4) fire-brigades 
and defence against floods. Besides these, some 
villages maintain jetties, moorings, electric light- 
ing and relief works. 


School Associations for Japanese— 


Formerly, in places other than cities or open 
ports in which Japanese municipalities were 
organized, the education of Japanese children 
was conducted by School Associations, and these 
were finally recognized as juridical persons by 
virtue of the regulations issued in 1909. On the 
abolition of Japanese municipalities and the 
adoption of the new municipal system, all public 
undertakings were transferred to the Prefectural 
Office. But educational measures for Japanese 
children could not be transferred to the local ad- 
ministration proper, since it bore on Koreans and 
Japanese alike, because the different conditions 
and language of the two peoples prevented their 
being brought under the same educational treat- 
ment for some time to come. On account of this, 
the regulations for school associations were re- 
vised, and a school association was required to be 
organized in each urban prefecture, and to it was 
transferred all educational matters affecting 
Japanese. 


132 THE NEW KOREA 


According to the revised regulations, a school 
association 1s formed by Japanese residents pos- 
sessing a certain qualification. It being self- 
governing, in contrast to other government of- 
fices, it has a council composed of six to eighteen 
elected members. Prefects act ew officio as 
superintendents of school associations, provided 
the jurisdictional district of the association covers 
that of the urban prefecture, otherwise the super- 
intendent is selected from among Japanese resi- 
dents of good repute by the Provincial Governor, 
and, with few exceptions, the post 1s honorary. 

School Associations maintain elementary 
schools in general, but those in cities maintain 
girls’ high schools, commercial schools, and kin- 
dergartens in addition. Under the management 
of these school associations there were, at the end 
of March, 1922, 480 primary schools, thirteen 
girls’ high schools, five commercial schools, and 
five elementary commercial schools. 

As the school association system has been but a 
short time established its financial foundation is 
not yet sufficiently firm. Its chief source of 
revenue being found only in the levying of rates, 
its upkeep is not an easy matter in most cases, so 
the Government not only grants the associations 
special subsidies to aid in school building and 
equipment, but yearly subsidies also toward ordi- 
nary expenses. In the fiscal year 1920 the in- 
crease in salaries and expenses due to the ex- 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 133 


traordinary rise in prices, with the consequent 
increase in rates by about 80 per cent, caused 
considerable increase in the general accounts as 
well. The following table shows the aggregate 
budget of school associations and the average 
burden on each household for the last few years: 


Niuber'ct Population Average 


cate forming Budget Burden per 
Associations Associations Household 


342,905 

322,437 

325,483 

312,541 391, 
304,481 1,863,264 





District Educational Bodies for Koreans— 


What School Associations are to the education 
of Japanese children in Chosen, District Kduca- 
tional Bodies are to the education of Korean 
children. 

In the fiscal year 1918 public schools for 
Korean children numbered 466 throughout the 
country, and the expenditure for them amounted 
to 1,835,000 yen, of which only 195,000 yen, 
namely about ten per cent of the whole, fell upon 
the Korean population, the average burden on 
each household being as low as six sen,* while the 
rest was met by government assistance. How- 


*1 sen=]% cent U.S. 


134 THE NEW KOREA 


ever, in view of the ever growing need of common 
education among the people a programme was 
drawn up in 1919 to found 400 more schools 
within the next four years on the standard of 
“one school to every three villages at least,” and 
this necessarily meant large increase in expendi- 
ture and consequent increase in the incidence of 
the school tax, as well as in the amount of gov- 
ernment aid. | 

The number of elementary schools for Ko- 
reans, and their financial condition is shown in 
the following table: 


ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS FOR KOREANS 


1922 | 1921 1920 





VERO Meee BOs oh ip tates 13,309 | 10,385 | 8,143 | 2,514 | 1,835 
School Tax (Thousands of yen)| 6,511 | 4,766 | 4,377 527 195 


Average Burden per House- 
Hold: (Haag ya | 2.03 1.49 1.39 0.16 | 0.06 


It is to be noted that between 1918 and 1922 
the expenditure on the elementary education of 
Koreans increased nearly eight-fold. 

For information as to the Korean educational 
system above the primary grade the reader is 
referred to the chapter on Education. 


GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 135 


W ater-utilization Associations— 


Agriculture leads all other productive indus- 
tries in Chosen and, in especial, is the production 
of rice of great importance. In developing this 
industry therefore and thereby enhancing the 
wealth of the country nothing is more essential 
than irrigation works, Possessed with this idea, 
the Japanese Resident-General prevailed on the 
old Korean Government to promulgate Regula- 
tions for Water-utilization Associations so that 
they might conduct irrigation, drainage, reclama- 
tion of waste land, etc. But as these regulations 
were enacted simply to meet the needs of the 
times they soon fell out of date and could no 
longer cope with the situation, so new regulations 
were framed and put into force in October, 1917, 
thus consolidating the system of Water-utiliza- 
tion Associations as well as making them conform 
with the progress in agricultural ideas in the 
populace. 

These associations are recognized by the new 
regulations as juridical persons with irrigation, 
draining, and flood prevention for their object, 
and the land served by any one association is 
regarded as its scene of operations, while the 
owners of the lands, houses, and other properties 
necessarily form its membership. The associa- 
tions have each a president and secretaries, be- 
sides a council whose business it is to discuss 


136 THE NEW KOREA 


financial and other important matters. The asso- 
ciations are also authorized to levy rates from 
their members for their maintenance, as well as 
to raise public loans for fresh enterprises, and in 
case of need they can co-operate by forming 
unions. In April, 1919, with the object of pro- 
moting their work the Government issued regula- 
tions for subsidizing these associations, and at the 
same time arranged to detail special- engineers 
from the Government to assist them. Further, in 
December, 1920, new regulations for helping on 
land improvement work were published, and the 
amount of subsidy was increased. 

At the end of the fiscal year 1922-3 existing 
associations numbered 50. Of these, four were 
organized previous to annexation, while of the 46 
remaining 38 date from the year 1919 onward. 
For further particulars the reader is referred to 
the chapter on Agriculture. 


CHAPTER VI 
THE LAWS AND COURTS OF KOREA 


Prior to 1895 the laws in force in Korea were 
those of the native system which had been de- 
veloped after the Chinese model, and which 
embodied rules of justice and methods of pro- 
cedure wholly repugnant to the modern Western 
conception of such matters. 

There was, before the introduction of the re- 
forms, hereafter to be described, but one written 
code, the penal law; there was no independent 
judiciary, justice being administered by the 
Emperor’s executive officers, who rarely had any 
legal training or any understanding of legal prin- 
ciples; torture was commonly employed not only 
to prisoners for the purpose of exacting confes- 
sion, but also to witnesses for the purpose of 
securing the desired evidence. 

In such circumstances it was inevitable that the 
administration of justice should be grossly cor- 
rupt, and that the power of the law was gen- 
erally used for the enrichment or other gratifica- 
tion of those who could evoke it. As in China, so 
in Korea, foreign powers insisted on the right of 
consular jurisdiction over their nationals. 

137 


138 THE NEW KOREA 


The first judicial reforms were undertaken 
shortly after the conclusion of the China-Japan 
war in 1895, at the instance of Japanese advisers. 
The Emperor of Korea promulgated an order 
for the constitution of law courts on March 25, 
1895. It provided for the establishment of a 
special court to deal with crimes committed by 
members of the Imperial family, a court of ap- 
peals, circuit courts, local courts, and treaty-port 
courts for the purpose of dealing with cases hav- 
Ing an international aspect. ‘The order was, how- 
ever, more honored in the breach than in the 
observance, as only two of the courts were effec- 
tively established—the court of appeals and the 
Jocal court at Seoul. 

Referring to these paper reforms, the follow- 
ing comment is made in a volume entitled Recent 
Progress in Korea, published in 1910 by the 
Japanese Residency-General. 


. . . the distinction between the judiciary and the 
executive existed only in form, and the administration 
of justice continued to be one of the principal means 
of satisfying covetous executive officials. 

As if these evils were not enough, both the muni- 
cipal and district magistrates, by special provisions 
of the law, were empowered to give decisions in any 
action whatever. These local officials discharged 
their judicial functions independently of the Law 
for the Constitution of Law-Courts, thus largely de- 
feating its object. The majority of the people, both 


THE LAWS AND COURTS OF KOREA _ 139 


governing and governed, had a very imperfect knowl- 
edge of judicial proceedings, and in spite of Regula- 
tions clearly providing for appeals from judgments 
pronounced by municipal and district magistrates, 
litigants who had adverse judgments given against 
them by a district magistrate often went to a second 
district magistrate instead of going to the appellate 
tribunal fixed by law. Nor was it rare for the magis- 
trate to whom such appeal was made to give hearing 
to it. 

The police stations also frequently usurped some 
of the functions of a law-court, while the Military 
and the Household Departments not only sometimes 
caused people to be arrested in an arbitrary manner, 
but actually pronounced judgment on their prisoners. 
In short it is not too much to say that nearly all 
offices of the executive departments meted out justice 
and always abused this power at the expense of the 
helpless masses. Amidst all this complicated judicial 
system, the Seoul Court, and the Supreme (Ap- 
pellate) Court stood somewhat prominent on account 
of their comparatively regular constitution. 


In 1906 the whole governmental situation in 
Korea was changed by the establishment of the 
Japanese Residency-General, in conformity with 
the terms of an agreement signed on November 
17, 1905. Although the Japanese immediately 
introduced certain reforms in the judicial sys- 
tem, and insured their execution by placing a 
Japanese legal councillor in the Korean Depart- 
ment of Justice and in each court of trial, it was 


140 THE NEW KOREA 


not until 1907 that a thorough overhauling of the 
whole system was undertaken. The power to do 
this was conferred on Japan by an agreement, 
signed on July 24, 1907, which had the practical 
effect of making Korea a Japanese protectorate. 
In this compact it was specifically provided that 
the judiciary should be separated from the other 
branches of administration, and that the Govern- 
ment of Korea should not enact any law, ordi- 
nance, or regulation without the previous assent 
of the Resident-General. 

Acting upon this agreement, law courts were 
opened in August, 1908, competent Japanese 
being appointed judges, public prosecutors, and 
clerks, in association with selected Korean judi- 
cial officers. But the financial resources of Korea 
proved to be insufficient for an adequate recon- 
struction of the judicial system, which would have 
involved large expenditures for court houses, and 
for modern jails to replace the unsanitary and 
otherwise unsatisfactory prisons of the old type. 
In 1907 the Japanese Government, in order to 
advance the cause of the administrative and judi- 
cial reforms which were then contemplated, had 
arranged for the Government of Korea to bor- 
row approximately twenty million yen, in six an- 
nual instalments, the loan to bear no interest and 
to have no fixed date of redemption. When it 
became clear that this sum would not suffice to 
finance the judicial as well as general adminis- 


THE LAWS AND COURTS OF KOREA 141 


trative reforms, an agreement was concluded on 
July 12, 1909, under which the whole of the judi- 
cial and prison administration of Korea was 
transferred to the Japanese, who undertook to 
defray all the expenses of reforming and of ad- 
ministering these services. 

Accordingly, in October, 1909, all the law 
courts which had been established by the Korean 
Government under the reforms of 1908 were con- 
verted into Residency-General Courts, and in 
addition twenty-six new district courts were es- 
tablished. As the administrative organ of justice 
and prisons a Judicial Bureau of the Residency- 
General was created by an Imperial Japanese 
Ordinance. At the end of 1909 there were in 
Korea one Supreme Court, three Courts of 
Appeal, eight Local Courts, nine Branch Local 
Courts, and eighty District Courts. 

The transfer of the Korean Law Courts to 
Japanese administration did not make Japanese 
law applicable to Koreans, for the Residency- 
General Courts were required to administer jus- 
tice in conformity with Korean law. Japanese 
residents in Korea continued to be subject to the 
jurisdiction of their own Consular Courts, as 
were all other foreigners whose governments had 
concluded treaties with Korea providing for ex- 
traterritorial rights. These were, of course, 
extinguished in 1910 when the constitutional 
status of Korea was completely changed through 


142 THE NEW KOREA 


the annexation of the country by Japan. The 
general judicial principle then adopted was that 
Japanese law should be held applicable to 
Korea; but in view of the wide differences be- 
tween the social conditions of the two countries, 
the courts were authorized to apply Korean laws 
and ordinances in so far as Japanese law was not 
specifically provided as applicable, when both 
parties to a civil suit are Koreans. In civil suits 
between Koreans and non-Koreans it was pro- 
vided that Japanese laws and ordinances should 
be applied, with such modifications as local cus- 
toms and usage showed to be equitable. 

In the matter of the criminal law the Japanese 
Code was to be applied, except in regard to mur- 
der or armed robbery committed by Koreans. 
This exception was made on the ground that 
these forms of crime were at that time of too com- 
mon occurrence, and were of such brutal cruelty 
in their commission, that the more severe punish- 
ments provided by Korean law were better cal- 
culated to check them than the milder penalties 
of the Japanese law. 

In respect of minor offences the Japanese re- 
tained, so far as Koreans were concerned, the 
usual Korean punishment of flogging; but an 
exemption was made in the case of women, of 
boys under sixteen, of men over sixty, and of per- 
sons who were sick or insane at the time of sen- 


THE LAWS AND COURTS OF KOREA = 148 


tence. Flogging as a penalty was finally abol- 
ished in 1920. 

At the time the new system was inaugurated 
a distinction was made between Japanese and 
Korean judges, the latter being authorized to sit 
only in cases in which Koreans alone were Gon- 
cerned; and the same distinction applied to pub- 
lic prosecutors. This distinction was abolished 
in 1920. 


The Sources of Law in Korea— 


Civil and criminal law in Korea, substantive 
and adjective, is derived from several sources; 
from the Imperial Constitution of Japan, from 
Treaties between Japan and other Powers, from 
such laws of the old Korean Government as were 
made valid at the time of annexation, from 
Residency-General Ordinances made valid at 
the same time, from Imperial Japanese Laws, 
passed by the Diet and sanctioned by the 
Emperor, having specific application to Ko- 
rea as originally passed, or made applicable 
later, from Imperial Edicts (Chokrei), and 
from Decrees (Seirei) of the Governor-General. 

The power of the Governor-General in respect 
of issuing Decrees is clearly defined and limited 
in an Imperial Ordinance, promulgated at the 
time of annexation. When local circumstances 
call for the enactment of a law, he may draft such 


144 THE NEW KOREA 


a law, but it cannot be put in force until the 
Imperial sanction has been received through the 
Prime Minister of Japan. Incase of emergency, 
the Governor-General may issue a Decree and 
make it immediately effective; but he must at 
once forward it to Tokyo for the Imperial sanc- 
tion, and if this is withheld, he must withdraw it 
from operation. No Decree may be in conflict 
with any part of Japanese law which has been 
extended to Korea, or with any Imperial Laws 
or Ordinances which have been promulgated for 
special application to Korea. 

J apanese laws, in part, or in their entirety, are 
often adopted as the contents of a Governor- 
General’s Decree. In respect of Decrees formu- 
lated in Korea by the Governor-General the pro- 
cedure is as follows: 

A draft is prepared either by the Council or by 
the department immediately concerned with the 
particular subject; this is then referred to other 
departments for consultation; if the draft was 
originally made by a department, it is at this 
stage referred to the Council for discussion; it 
then goes to the Chief of the Archives Section, 
for reading; from him to the Vice Governor- 
General, for examination, then to the Governor- 
General, for his final approval; as approved it 
returns to the Chief of the Archives Section for 
transmission to Tokyo for Imperial sanction; in 
Tokyo it is received by the Colonial Bureau, 


THE LAWS AND COURTS OF KOREA § 145 


which transmits it to the Secretary of the Cab- 
inet, who, in turn refers it to the Bureau of 
Legislation, for discussion; it is then returned to 
the Secretary of the Cabinet, and by him sub- 
mitted to the Prime Minister for deliberation at 
a Cabinet meeting; the Prime Minister reports 
it to the throne, and, Imperial sanction having 
been given, the document is returned to the Sec- 
retary of the Cabinet for transmission back to 
Korea; the Decree then becomes effective on pub- 
lication in the Korean official gazette. 

Local rules and regulations are issued by the 
Governor-General in the form of administrative 
ordinances (F'wrei) and by the Governors of the 
thirteen provinces of Korea. These latter do not 
require the previous sanction of the Governor- 
General before going into effect. Municipal by- 
laws are drawn up after consultation with the 
Municipal Council, and require the sanction of 
the Governor-General before they are applied. 


Civil Procedure— 


A plaintiff institutes a civil suit by a written 
application to a local court or its branch, which 
sits with a collegiate bench, and is a court of first 
instance. Judgments of such courts may be car- 
ried to appeal to a court of second instance; and 
from the second decision an appeal lies to the 
Supreme Court, such appeals to be lodged within 
thirty days of the notification of a judgment to 


146 THE NEW KOREA 


the parties concerned. In the court of second in- 
stance, as in that of first instance, the facts of the 
case are examined. In the Supreme Court ques- 
tions of law alone are generally dealt with in ap- 
pealed cases, though the Court may, at its dis- 
cretion, enter into the facts. 

The work of the courts in civil suits shows a 
steady increase in recent years. This is due in 
part to the growing complexity of civil relations, 
which has been the natural accompaniment of the 
economic development of the country, and in 
part to the gradual spread among the people of 
confidence in the administration of justice. 

The following table shows the number of civil 
suits instituted in courts of first instance, for sev- 
eral years, classified according to the subject- 
matter. 


Crvit Cases INSTITUTED IN THE Courts or First INsSTaNcE 
IN KoREA 





Cases Referring to | 1912 1921 1922 1923 1924 


—— | | | | | 


Tanda sae ee cio 6,827 5,587 5,532 5,750 7,493 
Buildings).))00 9.020% 695 1,228 1,379 1,640 2,106 
MONey eae Veter ie 21,515 | 35,997 | 31,501 | 36,064 | 38,322 
BCE OO Pe 2,080 1,893 2,284 2,262 2,843 
Other goods......... 531 911 838 896 888 
All other matters....} 3,089 3,431 3,774 4,994 5,340 

A Otabeetik Vewt ae 34,737 | 49,047 | 45,308 | 51,606 | 56,991 


About seven per cent of the decisions of the 
courts of first instance are carried to appeal in 


THE LAWS AND COURTS OF KOREA § 147 


the courts of second instance; and of these ap- 
peals about half are dismissed. About sixteen 
per cent of the decisions of the courts of second 
instance go to appeal in the courts of third in- 
stance; and of these appeals about two-thirds are 
dismissed. 


Criminal Procedure— 


All criminal cases are brought into court by the 
public procurators, whose position corresponds, 
roughly, with that of district-attorney in the 
United States. The procurator acts either upon 
his own information, or upon the complaint of a 
victim, or upon the statement of a witness, or 
upon evidence gathered by the judicial police, a 
body of men assigned to the duty of criminal in- 
vestigation. They are specially selected, and 
rank above the assistant police inspectors of the 
ordinary police. 

A person caught in the actual commission of 
crime may be arrested by an ordinary policeman; 
otherwise he must produce a warrant issued by a 
procurator or by one of the judicial police, as 
auxiliary to a procurator. The police may hold a 
suspect under detention for not more than ten 
days, to prevent him from absconding, or from 
destroying or concealing evidence. 

The following table shows the number and 
nature of the sentences imposed in criminal cases 
by the courts of first instance. Penal servitude 


148 THE NEW KOREA 


involves hard labor; imprisonment does not. A 
major fine is one which exceeds twenty yen; a 
minor fine is below twenty yen. Detention, as 
used in the table, means imprisonment for less 
than thirty days. Flogging was abolished as a 
penalty in 1920, 


SENTENCES ImposED IN CRIMINAL CASES BY eR 
oF First INSTANCE 


Nature of Sentence 1912 1921 1922 1923 
Death oe sae Cee 81 69 17 30 
Penal Servitude: 

For later ers tou ee 6 4A 47 16 26 
HGY ALOR Fe OS, 181 cates 9,533 16,744 12,892 9,585 
Imprisonment 
BOE G e e drrn ee ae 0 0 1 0 
Fora. Perm eet ye open 19 60 62 66 
Major Pine Foe ie ee we 846 8,657 | 12,155 | 11,576 
Minor: Fine sey Usicnk © plein 309 1,162 1,022 1,074 
Detention acta, Oe ee tlie aise 42 53 61 50 
Blog wmip ys vtech oe Geketeeate ss 4,321 0 0 0 
Potalyerevese eae ae, 15,195 26,792 | 26,209 | 229,377 





In a population of nearly eighteen million, of 
which less than four hundred thousand are Jap- 
anese and foreigners, the figures given above 
refer, naturally, for the most part to Koreans. 
The racial distribution of serious crime, that is to 
say of crimes which involved penalties of death, 
penal servitude or imprisonment, was as follows 
in 1923: Japanese 638; foreigners 147; Koreans 
8,922. 


THE LAWS AND COURTS OF KOREA § 149 


The total number of convicts entering the 
prisons of Korea in 1923 was 8,978, and of these, 
5,299 had sentences to serve of less than one year. 
This leaves a balance of 3,679 persons—21 per 
100,000 of the total population—who may be 
assumed to have committed more or less serious 
crimes. Of the penalties, twenty-seven were 
death, twenty-three penal servitude for life, 
twenty-seven penal servitude for fifteen years or 
more, and seventy-one penal servitude for terms 
from ten years to less than fifteen years. 

From the foregoing figures one may deduce 
that the Koreans are a law-abiding people, and 
that the Japanese are giving them a mild admin- 
istration of criminal justice so far as the charac- 
ter of the sentences is concerned. At the present 
time, when the prevalence of serious crime in the 
United States is being investigated by a number 
of states and cities, by private organizations, by 
university faculties, by the Federal Government, 
and by a National Crime Commission, one fea- 
ture of the administration of criminal justice in 
Korea is of particular interest—the extremely 
high percentage of convictions. 

During the twelve years ending with 1923 
there was no year in which less than 95.1 per cent 
of the cases tried in the criminal courts ended in 
the conviction of the accused; and the average for 
the period was 96.8 per cent of convictions. The 
circumstance that less than five persons charged 


150 THE NEW KOREA 


with crime in each hundred, so charged, escaped 
conviction contributed no doubt to the excellent 
record of Korea in respect of the incidence of 
crime. 

A convicted criminal in a court of first instance 
may take an appeal to a court of second instance, 
and from the decision there rendered he may ap- 
peal to a court of third instance. In 1923 there 
were 2,292 cases of criminal appeal before the 
courts of second instance; of these, 939 were with- 
drawn, 607 were dismissed. In 565 cases the de- 
cision of the court of first instance was reversed 
in whole; and in thirty-six cases in part. Of 
appeals to the courts of third instance there were 
196, of which 164 were dismissed, and seven with- 
drawn. ‘The decision of the lower court of appeal 
was reversed in whole in seven cases, and in part 
In one case. : 


The Judiciary— 

The judicial staff of Korea consisted at the 
beginning of 1923 of 162 Japanese and 37 Ko- 
rean judges, of 67 Japanese and 10 Korean pub- 
he prosecutors, of 4 Japanese chief clerks, of 4 
Japanese interpreters, and of 482 Japanese and 
232 Korean clerks and assistant mnterpreters. 

The judges are appointed directly by the Em- 
peror of Japan, and their tenure is for life, up to 
the legal age of retirement, which for the presi- 
dent of the Supreme Court is fixed at sixty-three, 


THE LAWS AND COURTS OF KOREA 151 


and for other judges at sixty. An extension of 
not more than five years can be granted by the 
Governor-General after the passage of a resolu- 
tion by the General Council of the Supreme 
Court in favor of it. 

The regulations governing the eligibility of 
persons to be appointed as judges in Korea are 
strict and precise; and they are in the main iden- 
tical with those in force in Japan proper. The 
independence of the judiciary is protected by the 
rule that a judge can be dismissed only if he has 
been sentenced to imprisonment by a Court of 
Law, or if a special commission of his colleagues 
on the bench have sentenced him to disciplinary 
punishment. Both Koreans and Japanese are 
eligible for admission to the bar, under the regu- 
lations for barristers. 

The standing of the judiciary has been greatly 
improved in recent years by raising the salaries 
of all judicial officers. This has had the effect of 
attracting to the service a higher type of men 
than could be secured for the pittances paid dur- 
ing the period of native Korean rule. ‘Thus, the 
salaries of judges and of public procurators have 
gradually been raised from a minimum of 500 
yen a year to one of 1,200, and from a maximum 
of 2,200 yen a year to one of 6,500. At the other 
end of the scale the salaries of secretaries and 
student-interpreters have been raised from a 
minimum of 120 yen a year to one of 480, and 


152 THE NEW KOREA 


from a maximum of 600 yen a year to one of 
1,920. Similar advances have been made in the 
salaries of the intermediate grades of the judicial 
service. 


Courts of Law— 


In 1925 there were in Korea one Supreme 
Court, three Courts of Appeal, eleven Local 
Courts, forty-six Branches of Local Courts, and 
160 Detached Offices of Local Courts, the last 
named dealing only with business under the law 
of registration, and with notarial matters. 

Both civil and criminal cases are first heard in 
Local Courts or their Branches. The first appeal 
goes to one of the Courts of Appeal; the next, 
and final, appeal is heard by the Supreme Court. 
Decisions of the Korean Courts cannot be car- 
ried for appeal to the Courts of Japan proper. 

As a general rule a single judge presides at a 
Local Court; but in civil suits involving a sum of 
money greater than a thousand yen, and in crim- 
inal cases when the penalty attached to the of- 
fence is death, or penal servitude, or imprison- 
ment for more than one year, a collegiate bench 
of three judges sits. In the Appeal Courts cases 
are heard by three judges, and in the Supreme 
Court by five, sitting as a collegiate bench. Trial 
by jury does not exist in Korea. 

Petty cases are seldom taken to the Law- 
Courts; but are summarily disposed of by the 


THE LAWS AND COURTS OF KOREA 158 


chief of a police station, first offenders being gen- 
erally dismissed with a warning. ‘The matter of 
summary jurisdiction is dealt with in the chapter 
on Police and Prisons. 


Suspended Sentences— 

A considerable proportion of the sentences 
passed upon criminals are converted into sus- 
pended sentences, known locally as a stay of exe- 
cution of sentence. Persons sentenced to penal 
servitude or imprisonment for two years or less 
are eligible to have their sentences suspended, 
provided such persons have not been sentenced 
to imprisonment during the seven years imme- 
diately preceding the new sentence. Suspension 
of sentence is granted by the sentencing court 
either on the application of the public prosecutor, 
or of the judge’s own motion. That the public 
prosecutors are favorable to the grant of this 
form of relief is proved by the fact that of the 
6,709 suspensions of sentence granted during the 
five years ending with 1921, more than 30% were 
at the instance of public prosecutors. 

In this connection it may be mentioned that, 
in the case of a first offender, and particularly 
in that of a juvenile first offender, it is the policy 
of the public prosecutors to admonish instead of 
to prosecute him, where the individual circum- 
stances of the offender indicate that this leniency 
is advisable. 


CHAPTER VII 
POLICE AND PRISONS 


(I) Police Administration 


Historical— 

Prior to the year 1894 police administration in 
Korea was under the full control of the Korean 
Government. Police work was regarded as a 
branch of military affairs; and throughout the 
various provinces the local garrisons acted as the 
local police forces. In Seoul, the capital city, 
there was a separate police organization known 
as the Potochong (Burglar Capturing Office) ; 
but the Chief and other officials of this metropoli- 
tan police force were all soldiers. 

Observers are generally agreed that under the 
old Korean police system the people at large had 
more to fear than to hope for from the activities 
of the police. Little protection was afforded to 
life and property, and the police force was, in 
practice, rather the corrupt instrument of a few 
influential people than an impartial agent for the 
preservation of law and order. 

Under the terms of an Agreement concluded 
between Japan and Korea in 1894, the Korean 

154 


POLICE AND PRISONS 155 


Government engaged the services of a number of 
Japanese officials for the purpose of removing 
the gross abuses which had long existed in the 
police administration of the country. Acting n 
conformity with Japanese advice the Govern- 
ment separated police affairs from the military 
administration, and created a Bureau of Police 
Affairs in the Home Office. Provincial Gov- 
ernors were made responsible for the police af- 
fairs of their provinces, thus transferring the 
local control and execution of police work from 
the military to the civil authorities. 

In Seoul the office of the Potochong was re- 
named Kyongmu Chong (Police Affairs Office) ; 
its functions were extended; and a school was 
established for the training of Korean police offi- 
cials. It was hoped that the various changes 
introduced at this time would reduce, and finally 
eliminate the abuses of the old system. Ten 
years’ experience of these early reform measures 
showed, however, that changes in administrative 
technique were powerless to offset the defects of 
an inferior police personnel. 

Accordingly, in 1904, the Korean Government 
engaged the services of Mr. Maruyama, an ex- 
perienced Japanese police official, with a view to 
placing the police administration upon a sound 
basis. Mr. Maruyama brought over from Japan 
twenty-one police inspectors, eighteen sergeants, 
and 1,205 policemen, and distributed them among 


156 THE NEW KOREA 


the Metropolitan and Provincial Police Offices. 
He also enlarged the curriculum of the Training 
School for Police Officials. 

In 1905 the police situation was altered by the 
appointment in Korea of a Japanese Resident- 
General, who replaced the Japanese Minister to 
the Court of Korea. The creation of a Resi- 
dency-General called for corresponding adjust- 
ments in the administrative regulations of Korea; 
and amongst these not the least important were 
those which affected the police force. 

Hitherto the Japanese officials, and their sub- 
ordinates, doing police work in Korea had been 
known as the Advisory Police, since they held no 
rank in the Korean service. This arrangement 
having proved unsatisfactory from the stand- 
point of administrative efficiency, the Korean 
Government, in October, 1907, abolished the 
Police Advisorship, and made Korean officials of 
all members of the Japanese police force in 
Korea. 

The Director of Police Affairs in the Central 
Government was left with the power to issue 
instructions to the Chiefs of the Police Depart- 
ments in the Provinces, and to the Captains of 
local police stations in respect of any agitation 
among the people, of any movements of insur- 
gents, and of any other matters of national im- 
portance. 

The extent to which the Japanese interested 


POLICE AND PRISONS 157 


themselves in the reform of the Korean police 
system may be measured roughly by the fact that 
the expenditure on the police force was increased 
from $196,453 in 1906 to $1,349,599 in 1909. In 
the latter year the ordinary police force was made 
up of 36 Japanese and 11 Korean inspectors, 156 
Japanese and 102 Korean sergeants, 1,924 
Japanese and 57 Korean interpreters, and 63 
Japanese physicians—a total of 5,554. 

In addition to the ordinary police force the 
Japanese maintained for a number of years in 
Korea a force of gendarmes. This gendarmerie 
was originally established after the China-Japan 
War of 1894, for the purpose of guarding tele- 
graph lines. Later, its functions were extended 
to include protection of the railroads and the 
performance of ordinary police work. 

The necessity of having such a force available 
was emphasized by the outbreak of insurgency in 
various parts of the country after the establish- 
ment of the Residency-General in 1905. Apart 
from the special problems created for the au- 
thorities by the insurrection, the general question 
of maintaining law and order in the country dis- 
tricts was one of great complexity. 

For many years the people of the interior had 
suffered greatly from the activities of outlaws. 
Without the co-operation of the Koreans the 
Japanese gendarmerie would have made little 
headway in suppressing these marauding bands, 


158 THE NEW KOREA 


The task was one of extreme difficulty, owing to 
the reluctance, through fear of reprisals, of the 
local population to give information to the au- 
thorities, or to appear as witnesses at trials. 

In order to overcome these obstacles, as far as 
possible, a force of native Korean gendarmes was 
enrolled and placed under the command of the 
Commandant of the Japanese Garrison Gen- 
darmerie. 

At the end of 1909 there were 2,369 Japanese 
and 4,892 Korean gendarmes, stationed at 499 
points. 


After the Annevation— 


In 1910 Korea was annexed to Japan and 
made an integral part of the Empire. The An- 
nexation was proclaimed in Korea on August 
29, 1910, but the complete control of police affairs 
had been transferred to the Japanese two months 
before this date. 

During the next ten years the Government- 
General carried out many changes in police or- 
ganization. These led, finally, in 1919 to the 
disbandment of the gendarmerie, to the estab- 
lishment of a Bureau of Police Affairs in the 
Government-General, and to the transfer to the 
Provincial Governments of control over the local 
police. This last step placed the police adminis- 
tration in Korea upon the same basis as that of 
Japan proper. 


POLICE AND PRISONS 159 


In each of the thirteen provinces a police 
Department was set up, with a Provincial Secre- 
tary as its official head; and to the ordinary duties 
of preserving law and order there were added 
those of a sanitary police. In order to increase 
the efficiency of the force, whose work was con- 
stantly becoming heavier and more comprehen- 
sive, the police training school was greatly en- 
larged, and was given the status of an independ- 
ent institution under the direct supervision of the 
Government-General. 

In the following table the composition of the 
Korean Police Force in October, 1922, is given. 
Under the head “Officers” are included 13 Chiefs 
of Police, all Japanese; 41 Japanese and 14 


PERSONNEL OF KoreEAN Pouice Force, 1922 





Officers Policemen 
Province TE AY TAU ETS Bh ES ToT MLTR il WS raieny 
otal 
Jap. |Korean| Jap. |Korean 

Beikp yeni. es 161 60 1,456 | 1,161 2,617| 2,838 
North Chusei..... 50 18 391 329 720 788 
South Chusei. .... 65 25 607 465 | 1,072) 1,162 
North Zenra...... 67 25 659 501 1,160} 1,252 
South Zenra...... 91 36 981 697 | 1,678) 1,805 
North Keisho..... 94 =f 1,002 768 1,770| 1,901 
South Keisho. .... 101 36 996 658 | 1,654) 1,791 
TOKE} uo Penn es re 30 799 642 1,441| 1,548 
South Heinan..... 78 26 762 538 1,300| 1,404 
North Heinan.... 113 38 1,113 691 1,804; 1,955 
PRARTE Ne ei tc ea ee 87 36 731 628 1,359) 1,482 
South Kankyo.... 93 29 819 568 1,387} 1,509 
North Kankyo.... 83 27 "Lo 514 1,227) .1,837 


Dee ee a ee RS ey ne ee eed 


Potalie.. bli: 1,161 | 422 | 11,028] 8,160 | 19,188! 20,771 





160 THE NEW KOREA 


Korean Police Superintendents; 377 Japanese 
and 140 Korean Police Inspectors; and 730 
Japanese and 268 Korean Assistant Police 
Inspectors. 

In addition to the above, there were attached 
to the police staff thirteen civil engineers, two 
harbor doctors, two veterinary surgeons, four 
harbor officers, six assistant harbor officers, three 
assistant veterinary surgeons, thirty-six assistant 
engineers, and four student-interpreters. 

Taking the population in 1922 as approxi- 
mately 17 million, there was one policeman to 
818 inhabitants. The total area of Korea being 
85,156 square miles, the police force if evenly 
distributed would have averaged about one po- 
liceman to four square miles. 


Summary Police Jurisdiction— 


Chiefs of police stations in Korea may exercise 
summary jurisdiction in cases where persons are 
charged with trivial offences. Such cases are, for 
the most part, connected with gambling, simple 
assault, violation of the traffic regulations, and so 
on. No offender can be tried by summary juris- 
diction unless he assents to that process; and if 
he assents to it and is then dissatisfied with the 
result he can appeal the decision in one of the 
ordinary law courts. The right is seldom exer- 
cised, as first offenders in petty cases are usually 
let off with a warning. Although the chief of a 


POLICE AND PRISONS 161 


police station may inflict a penalty as severe as 
three months’ penal servitude, he usually imposes 
a fine of not more than 100 yen, or simple deten- 
tion for not more than three months. 

In the year 1921 there were 73,262 cases de- 
cided by summary police jurisdiction. Of these, 
71,802 ended in a conviction of the defendant; 
and against these decisions there were only 54 
appeals, of which 42 resulted in confirmation of 
the sentence, and 12 in reversal. 


Cost of the Police Force— 


The following table shows the total cost of the 
Korean Police System. The figures refer to the 
ordinary police. The Judicial Police is made up 
of officials who have the authority, ex officio, to 
investigate crimes. ‘The officials having this 
power are Provincial Governors, Chiefs of Po- 
lice departments of Provincial Governments, 
Police Superintendents, Police Inspectors, and 
Assistant Police Inspectors, whose salaries are 
carried in the budgets of their several offices. 


Cost ofr THE KorEAN PoLicre SySTEM 
(In thousands of yen. 1 yen=50 cents U. S.) 
4,217 1920 


4,173 1921 
4,183 1922 


4,212 1923 
4,840 1924 





162 THE NEW KOREA 


The marked increase after 1919 was due to the 
abolition of the gendarmerie, and the absorption 
of that force into the ordinary police force. It 
will be noted that in the fiscal year 1924-5 the 
cost of the Korean police system averaged less 
than sixty-five cents per head of the population 
of the country. 


(IT) Prison Administration 


Under native Korean rule the prisons, like 
those of almost all Oriental countries, were hor- 
rible beyond description. Sanitary conveniences 
were lacking, gross ill-treatment of the prisoners 
was common; and overcrowding was carried to 
an almost incredible point. When the Japanese 
took over the prison administration they found 
that the average floor-space per prisoner was less 
than five square feet. 

From year to year since annexation the num- 
ber of prisons has been increased, and their con- 
dition improved, so that today, the larger prisons, 
at least, will bear comparison with those of any 
country, and are greatly superior to most of the 
prisons in the United States. 

Under the old system the prisons were under 
the control of the Home Department of the 
Korean Government, and were usually attached 
to police stations. At present all prisons in 


POLICE AND PRISONS 163 


Korea are under the direct control of the 
Governor-General, and their administration is 
supervised by the Judicial Bureau of the Gov- 
ernment-General. On the spot the responsibility 
for prison administration lies with the chief pub- 
lic procurator of a Court of Appeal. As a rule 
the staff of a prison consists of a Governor, a 
physician, a chaplain, with a complement of 
warders, technical experts, and interpreters. In 
the larger prisons there are in addition teachers 
and pharmacists. 

Each year a certain proportion of the warders 
—ahbout ten per cent—are sent to a training insti- 
tute to receive a course of instruction in matters 
connected with their duties. In addition to this, 
a special course of training is given to a number 
of picked men each year, in order to fit them for 
promotion in the prison service. Forty men were 
given this special course in 1922, the subjects of 
study and the hours devoted to them being as 
follows: 

Criminal law, 50; penology, 25; factory admin- 
istration, 25; accountancy, 30; drill, gymnastics, 
etc., 45; prison laws and regulations, and their 
application—indoor business, 65, outdoor busi- 
ness, 60; sanitation, 12; education, 10. 

Chief warders and the more efficient warders 
are occasionally sent to Japan to attend higher 
technical courses. 


164 THE NEW KOREA 


The following table gives the number of new 
convicts for each of the ten fiscal years ending 
with 1921-22. 


NuMBER oF Persons ENTERING PRISON UNDER SENTENCE 
IN KOREA 


Japanese Koreans Foreigners 


Male |Female| Male |Female| Male |Female 





The foregoing figures include, up to the end of 
1920, Korean male convicts whose penalty was 
flogging, but who were not held in prison after 
the punishment had been inflicted. Flogging 
was abolished in 1920. ‘The average number of 
floggings administered annually between 1915 
and 1920, both included, was 7,210. 

Having regard to the early age at which 
Koreans reach maturity, there is very little ju- 
venile crime in the country. Of the 8,978 per- 
sons convicted of crime in 1923, only 546 were 
under twenty years of age, and of these only 
eighty were females. Between the ages of 20 
and 380 there were 3,786; between 30 and 40 there 


POLICE AND PRISONS 165 


were 3,029; between 40 and 50 there were 1,191; 
and over 50 there were 426. Perhaps the most 
striking single feature of the prison statistics is 
that of a total population of Korea, nearly 
18,000,000 persons, only 486 females were con- 
victed of crime in the year 1924. 


First Off enders— 

Under the present prison law and regulations 
first offenders are kept apart from other convicts, 
both in the cells and in the prison work-shops, 
and are given special treatment. ‘They are bet- 
ter paid than old offenders for the work they do 
in prison; are afforded more chances of writing 
to and of meeting their relatives; particular care 
is taken with their schooling and admonition, and 
upon their release they are either returned to 
their near relatives or are placed in the care of 
one of the Prisoners’ Protection Associations. 


Recidivism— 

It will be seen from the following table that 
about eighty per cent of the yearly batch of 
prisoners are first offenders. In the table male 
and female prisoners are combined into a single 
total. The detailed figures show, however, that 
almost all the female prisoners are first offenders. 
During the four years ending with the fiscal year 
1921-22 the total number of female prisoners was 
8,360, of whom all but 128 were first offenders. 


166 THE NEW KOREA 


PRISONERS CLASSIFIED AccORDING TO RecIDIVISM 


3rd Offence 


Total 
and over 


Ist Offence | 2nd Offence 


20,317 


22,049 
14,464 
15,098 





Pardons— 


In accordance with Japanese custom pardons 
are granted to prisoners or their sentences are 
reduced on occasions of national importance. 
Since the annexation of Korea in 1910 five such 
occasions have occurred. The first was at the 
time of annexation, when 1,711 prisoners bene- 
fited by the Imperial grace; the second was at the 
time of the demise of the Emperor Meiji in 1912, 
when 4,767 prisoners were affected; the third fol- 
lowed the death of the Dowager Empress Shoken 
in 1914, when 8,872 prisoners were shown clem- 
ency; the fourth was the occasion of the corona- 
tion of the Emperor Yoshihito in 1915, affecting 
10,208 prisoners; the fifth was in 1920 when, on 
the marriage of the Korean Prince Yi to the 
Japanese Princess Nashimoto-no-Miya, the sen- 
tences of 3,546 prisoners were reduced. Among 
these was a large number of political prisoners 
who had been convicted and sentenced for taking 
part in the disturbances connected with the in- 
dependence movement of 1919. 


POLICE AND PRISONS 167 


Prisoners’ Labor— 


Under the old Korean Government little was 
done to provide work for the prisoners. It was 
not until after annexation that this matter was 
taken up seriously with a view as well to making 
an offset against the increasing expenditure on 
prisons as to counteracting the evils which invari- 
ably result from the enforced idleness of persons 
im confinement. At the present time about 
ninety-six per cent of healthy and able-bodied 
prisoners are kept at work. From time to time 
the scope of prison work has been extended, the 
principal occupations now being weaving, paper- 
making, tailoring, straw-work, brick-making, 
cabinet-work, and farming. 

According to the Japanese system of Govern- 
ment accountancy, the wages of prisoners, 
whether coming from the proceeds of the sale of 
their work, or actual payments by employers of 
prison labor, are incorporated in the State rev- 
enue account, the actual wage paid to, and 
becoming the personal property of prisoners is 
charged against prison expenditures. In recent 
years the average daily wage paid to prisoners 
has been between six and eight cents. 


Morbidity and Mortality of Prisoners— 


Both the sick rate and the death rate among 
prisoners in the jails of Korea are very low when 


168 THE NEW KOREA 


compared with those of countries of similar situa- 
tion in respect of the general public health, 

In the five years ending with 1923 the average 
daily population of the prisons was 15,220; the 
annual average of deaths in prison was 288; and 
the daily average number of patients under treat- 
ment in the prison hospitals and sick bays was 
1,083. These figures show an average annual 
death rate of 18.9 per thousand; and a morbidity 
rate of 71.1 per thousand. | 


CHAPTER VIII 
GOVERNMENT FINANCE 


Historical— 

Under the old Korean régime the finances of 
the country were administered by two organiza- 
tions, the Finance Department of the Korean 
State, and the Financial Department of the Im- 
perial Korean Household. Although, in theory, 
these departments were independent of each 
other, each collecting its revenue from different 
sources, in practice the distinction was often dis- 
regarded, the latter encroaching from time to 
time on the revenues payable to the former, and 
occasionally exacting appropriations from it. 

The principal sources of revenue upon which 
the Imperial Korean Household depended were 
the mining tax, the courier service tax, the house 
tax, the income derived from the sale of official 
appointments; and later the profit on the ginseng 
monopoly, which the Imperial Household took 
away from the State Financial Department in 
1899. 

Another source of Imperial Household rev- 
enue was the profit made on the minting of coins. 

169 


170 THE NEW KOREA 


A curious sidelight is thrown upon the Korean 
conception of economic law by the habit, which 
prevailed for many years, of selling to private 
individuals the right to mint coin and to put it in 
circulation as a competitor of the official coinage. 
An amusing abuse of this custom was the renting 
out of the official mint dies by corrupt officials to 
the highest bidder, for his private use. ° 

The principal tax collected by the Finance 
Department of the Korean State was the Land 
Tax, based upon a registry of occupancy, and 
upon an assessment made in respect of the situa- 
tion, fertility, and irrigation facilities of the land. 
The standard of land taxation was called the 
kyel, which represented a figure arrived at by 
estimating the quantity of grain which could be 
produced from a given area of land. 

The land tax was, until 1894, payable in kind, 
after which it had to be paid in money, and it 
was imposed upon the person using the land, not 
upon the owner. The actual collection of the tax 
was accompanied by many abuses. The desire of 
the officials to enrich themselves at the expense of 
the State, and of the people to evade payment of 
the tax, led to the falsification of the register, and 
to dishonest assessments. 

In 1904 Korea agreed to engage a Japanese 
financial adviser and to accept his decisions in 
respect of financial reforms. In the years imme- 
diately following, many changes were effected in 


GOVERNMENT FINANCE 171 


the Korean system of taxation, both in the direc- 
tion of reforming the methods of collecting the 
old taxes, and in that of imposing new taxes. 
But it was not until after the establishment of the 
Residency-General, in 1906, that it was prac- 
ticable to undertake a thorough overhauling of 
the Korean finances. 

The financial reforms are thus described in the 
Report on Reforms and Progress in Chosen, 
1918-1921: 


To know the Financial condition of Chosen in its 
true aspect, it is mecessary to have a general idea 
of what it was previous to annexation. From very 
early times the finance of the country lacked solid 
foundation, the taxation and the currency systems 
both being in the wildest confusion, the annual ex- 
penditure wasted to no purpose, and the Court and 
Government having no definite distinction between 
themselves with regard to their revenues and expendi- 
tures. . . . With regard to expenditures each Gov- 
ernment department spent as it pleased, being re- 
strained by nothing save the lack of funds. The 
result of this mismanagement was that no reliable 
foundation existed on which to base accounts, and 
the compilation of the budget was a mere farce. 

On the conclusion of the agreement between Japan 
and Chosen in August, 1904, resulting in the appoint- 
ment of a financial adviser recommended by the 
Japanese Government and the establishment of the 
Residency-General in 1906, strenuous efforts were 
made to bring to an end the haphazard method of 


172 THE NEW KOREA 


dealing with the finance of the country, by adopting 
the gold standard in order to secure a uniform cur- 
rency, by establishing a central bank and making it 
the national treasurer, whilst giving it power to issue 
convertible notes, and by founding agricultural and 
industrial banks and people’s banking associations 
in important centers, for the purpose ys facilitating 
the development of industry. 

The financial resources of the country were fully 
investigated, the financial law requiring the compila- 
tion of a yearly budget and the proper carrying of 
it into practice was strictly enforced, regulations 
relating to taxes for the purpose of ensuring an 
annual revenue, and its natural increment, and the 
equitable distribution of the tax burden were intro- 
duced, the system of tax collection was improved so 
as to combat and root out the vicious habit of extor- 
tion, and various taxes, as well as the income from 
the ginseng monopoly, etc., formerly collected by the 
Imperial Korean Household Department, were placed 
under the control of the Korean Government itself, 
thus making a clear distinction between the proper- 
ties belonging to the Imperial Household and to the 
State respectively, and a great expansion was ef- 
fected in the financial sphere of the Korean Govern- 
ment. 

The result produced by the above-mentioned meas- 
ures was so great that the poor financial condition 
of the fiscal year 1905—plainly shown by the ex- 
penditure (9,550,000 yen) exceeding the revenue 
(7,480,000 yen) by over 27 per cent—improved so 
rapidly that in the fiscal year 1910 the revenue and 
expenditure, each amounting to over 23,960,000 yen, 


GOVERNMENT FINANCE 173 


showed an even balance; and by the time the Govern- 
ment-General was established, as a consequence of 
the annexation in August, 1910, the finances of 
Chosen had been put on a firm basis, though only six 
years had elapsed since the work was first taken up. 


Subsequent to the Annexation of 1910— 

Korea having been annexed in August, 1910, 
the accounts for the first fiscal year, ending on 
March 381, 1911, covered only seven months. 
The first complete fiscal year was that of 1911- 
1912. From that year onward the Revenue and 
Expenditure Accounts of the Government- 
General are shown in the following table. The 
figures down to and including 1922-23 refer to 
actual revenue and expenditure, and for the fol- 
lowing three years are those of the budget esti- 
mates. 

In the budget estimates revenue and expendi- 
ture are made to balance, as is seen from the fig- 
ures of the last three years. In practice the 
revenue has almost always exceeded the estimate, 
and the expenditure has always fallen below it. 
Referring to the first thirteen years in the table, 
in each of which the figures are those of the 
finally settled accounts, it is to be observed that 
there has been a substantial annual surplus of 
revenue over expenditure. The surplus is always 
carried over to the following year and is incor- 
porated in the budget as an item of extraordinary 
revenue. 


174 THE NEW KOREA 


REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF THE GOVERNMENT-GENERAL 
oF Korea 


(In thousands of yen. 1 yen=50 cents U. S.) 





Revenue Expenditure 


Ordinary Extraor- Total (Ordinary Extraor- Total 


dinary dinary 
IDL ay 25,564 | 26,720 52,284 | 25,548 | 20,624 46,172 
TOTS 28,765 | 33,362 62,127 | 28,000; 23,781 51,781 
MOISE ey 31,347 | 31,746 63,093 | 31,690 | 21,'764 53,454 
TOTS Ya 35,692 | 26,355 62,047 | 32,278 | 22,829 55,100 
yy Rs ae 38,829 | 23,893 62,722 | 34,725 | 22,145 56,870 
$916 poe 44,764 | 23,438 68,202 | 36,188 | 21,374 57,562 
ONT oa. 46,433 | 25,470 74,903 | 31,944 | 19,227 51,171 
LOLS Hei; 59,371 | 40,740 | 100,111 | 34,811 | 29,251 64,062 
2OI9 er. 73,951 | 51,852 | 125,803 | 39,248 | 52,778 93,026 
TOZO as 71,343 | 75,000 | 146,343 | 64,213 | 58,008 | 122,221 
L921 93,417 | 81,717 | 175,184 | 91,366 | 57,047 | 148,414 
LOS2 100,248 | 69,112 | 169,360 | 96,089 | 59,023 | 155,113 
LOSS nT. $0,885 | 61,828 | 152,713 | 94,560} 50,207 | 144,768 
1924..... 102,384 | 38,440 | 140,824 | 106,209 | 34,615 | 140,824 
LOZS. C's 143,465 | 32,583 | 176,048 | 136,868 | 39,180 | 176,048 
LOSG 574) 149,454 | 38,553 | 188,006 | 140,339 | 47,667 | 188,006 


The average revenue raised during the first 
three years covered by the foregoing table was 
59 million yen, the average for the three years 
1921-23 (the latest for which settled account 
figures are available) was 166 million yen. On 
this basis the revenue of the Government-General 
increased by 181.3 per cent, as between 1911-13 
and 1921-23. During the same period the value 
of the import and export trade of Korea (upon 
which the prosperity of the country depends) 
increased from an average of 88 million yen to 
an average of 456 million yen, or 418.1 per cent. 


GOVERNMENT FINANCE 175 


In round figures this means that the value of the 
principal element in the economic development 
of Korea has increased at two-and-a-half times 
the rate of the revenue raised by the Government- 
General. It is to be noted that in the system of 
accounting followed by the Government-General 
the proceeds of the flotation of public loans are 
merged in the revenue receipts. The revenue 
figures—classed as Ordinary and Extraordinary 
—include all receipts whether from taxation, 
loans, profits on Government enterprises, or any 
other source. ‘The expenditure figures include 
all payments of interest on the public debt, and 
all repayments on account of loans. 


Sources of Government Revenue— 


The Ordinary Revenue of the Government- 
General falls under two general heads—Revenue 
from ‘Taxation, and Revenue from Other 
Sources. Under the former head the total re- 
ceipts during the ten years ending on March 31, 
1921 were 218 million yen, of which 43.5 per cent 
was derived from the land tax, 32 per cent from 
customs duties, 8.5 per cent from the tobacco tax, 
5.8 per cent from the liquor tax, 2.8 per cent 
from the rural household tax, 2.4 per cent from 
the mining tax; the remaining 5 per cent being 
distributed among small items, none of which 
reached a proportion as high as 2 per cent of the 
total. 


176 THE NEW KOREA 


Ordinary Revenue from sources other than 
taxation reached a total of 238 million yen in the 
ten fiscal years 1911-1920. To this total the 
Government Railways contributed 28.6 per cent, 
communications (postal, telegraphic, and tele- 
phonic) 18.2 per cent, revenue stamps 16.1 per 
cent, the rental of Government land 6-4 per cent, 
Government monopolies 6 per cent, Government 
coal 5.9 per cent, Government lumber 5.3 per 
cent, revenue from salt, forests, optum, and 
water-works 4.1 per cent, printing, and the sale 
of weights and measures 3.2 per cent, Govern- 
ment undertakings other than those referred to 
above 2.3 per cent. 

During the same ten-year period the Extraor- 
dinary Revenue amounted to 219 million yen. 
Of this total Government loans accounted for 
59.9 per cent, subsidies from the Imperial 
Japanese Treasury for 34.7 per cent, the sale of 
Government property for 2.2 per cent, and vari- 
ous small items for the remainder. 

Comparing the revenue figures given above 
with those for the five-year period immediately 
following, that is to say for the fiscal years 1921 
to 1925, some changes are to be noted in the 
sources from which the revenue was derived. In 
the latter period the percentage of the revenue 
derived from the land tax fell to 38.9, and that 
from customs duties to 27.1, while that from the 
tobacco tax was reduced from 8.5 to 2.5, as a con- 


GOVERNMENT FINANCE 177 


cession to tobacco-loving people. On the other 
hand the revenue from the liquor tax moved up 
from 5.8 per cent of the total to 20 per cent, and 
that from the sugar tax from 0.6 to 4.5 per cent. 

In the category of Ordinary Revenue from 
sources other than taxation the only important 
change to be noted is the receipts from Govern- 
ment Monopolies, of which the proportion moved 
up from 6.0 per cent of the total to 31.9 per cent, 
owing to the establishment of the ‘Tobacco 
Monopoly in 1921. 

The sources of Extraordinary Revenue showed 
several important changes. Receipts from the 
sale of State properties rose from 2.2 per cent of 
the total to 8.8 per cent, surpluses from previous 
years rose from 1.9 to 22.1 per cent while the 
receipts from public loans declined from 57.4 to 
37.1 per cent, and those from Imperial subsidies 
from 34.9 to 28.6 per cent. 

During the five-year period 1921-25 the aver- 
age total annual revenue was, in round figures, 
161 million yen, the average annual revenue from 
taxation was 37 million yen, the average annual 
revenue from ordinary sources other than taxa- 
tion was 71 million yen; and the annual average 
of the extraordinary revenue was 53 million yen. 

Assuming that the average population of 
Korea during the period was 17 million it is seen 
that the total revenue of the Government- 
General was 9.5 yen ($4.75) per capita of the 


178 THE NEW KOREA 


population; that the revenue from taxation was 
2.2 yen ($1.10) per capita; that the revenue from 
ordinary sources other than taxation was 4.2 yen 
($2.10) per capita; and that the extraordinary 
revenue—chiefly public loans, and subsidies from 
the Imperial J apanese Trrasut ys Was 3.1 yen 
($1.55) per capita. 


Monopolies and Other Government Undertak- 
ings— 

The Government-General maintains two mo- 
nopolies—the manufacture and sale of tobacco 
and of ginseng. 

Tobacco manufacture was started in Korea in 
1903 by the Korean-Japanese ‘Tobacco Com- 
pany, and other companies soon entered the busi- 
ness. In 1921 the Government-General’s Mo- 
nopoly Bureau bought out the existing tobacco 
companies and started the manufacture of a 
variety of cigarettes and cut-tobacco. In 1923 
tobacco manufacture afforded employment to 
4,000 men and 1,000 women. In the fiscal year 
1922-23 the production of cigarettes was some- 
thing over three and a half billion pieces, and of 
cut-tobacco 897,500 pounds, of which the sale 
yielded about 18 million yen. 

Ginseng is a perennial herb of the araliaceae 
family, highly esteemed in China as a stimulant 
and aphrodisiac. It was made a monopoly by the 
old Korean Government as early as 1899. After 


GOVERNMENT FINANCE 179 


the annexation of Korea in 1910 the Govern- 
ment-General encouraged its cultivation by 
adopting scientific methods and by lending 
money, without interest, to associations of gin- 
seng cultivators. In 1911 the amount of pre- 
pared ginseng sold was 2,120 pounds, which 
brought a price of 120 thousand yen. In the fis- 
cal year 1922-23 the amount sold was 45,670 
pounds, from which the receipts were 2,269,664 
yen. 

Salt manufacture is conducted by the Govern- 
ment-General by the process of natural evapora- 
tion; and salterns have been established at various 
places on the Korean coast. Up to the year 
1921 crude salt only was produced, good table- 
salt being imported; but in that year a refinery 
was set up for the manufacture of superior quali- 
ties. In 1911 the production of salt was about 
six million pounds, yielding 80,000 yen; in the fis- 
cal year 1922-23 the production of salt was 100 
million pounds, from which the Government- 
General received a revenue of 860 thousand yen. 


Lumber Undertaking Station— 


The Lumber Undertaking Station is the spe- 
cial government office controlling the State for- 
ests covering about 5,500,000 acres in the basins 
of the Yalu and Tumen. It engages in various 
kinds of work tending not only to improve the 


180 THE NEW KOREA 


forests themselves but to improve their indirect 
utilization. 

The principal trees in the forests are mostly 
those found in the frigid zone, such as the larch, 
fir, birch, and aspen, all valuable for utilitarian 
purposes. As for afforestation, not only is the 
natural way utilized but plantation on a large 
scale is carried on, seedlings of the most suitable 
varieties for this region being raised in special 
nurseries. 

For the proper protection of the forests the 
Station established sixty branches in 1919 to 
guard against wilful damage being done to them, 
and since the fiscal year 1915 protection unions 
have been organized in that region to the advan- 
tage of both officials and people, and such num- 
bered 232 at the end of this fiscal year, guarding 
an area of over 1,245,000 acres. The result being 
very good it is proposed to encourage more such 
organizations in the future. 

For further details as to the forests of Korea 
the reader is referred to Chapter XIII. 

The preparation of timber was formerly car- 
ried on by private saw-mills under contract. As 
this proved unsatisfactory both to buyers and to 
the Station, it was decided that it should be done 
direct by the Station so that better adjustment 
between demand and supply might be main- 
tained. A saw-mill at Shin-gishu was bought, 
enlarged, and equipped with modern machinery 


GOVERNMENT FINANCE 181 


for this purpose, and in the fiscal year 1922-23 
turned out 2,172,000 cubic feet of timber from 
logs measuring 3,852,000 cubic feet. 

The timber prepared by the Station finds its 
market mostly in Chosen, though a small demand 
for piles and sleepers comes from Manchuria. 
Even in Chosen the output by the Station was at 
first taken solely by the Government, but of late 
years it has become recognized as excellent in 
quality and, the credit system being introduced, 
the general demand for it is increasing. 

The total production in 1910 was 200,000 cubic 
feet, of which 121,000 was in lumber, 48,000 in 
logs, and 31,000 in standing trees. In the fiscal 
year 1922-23 the total sales amounted to 859,000 
cubic feet, of which 176,000 was in lumber, 111,- 
000 in logs, and 571,000 in standing trees. In 
1910 the profit from this undertaking was 80,000 
yen; in 1920 it rose to 850,000 yen; in 1922-23 it 
fell to 370,000 yen, owing to the universal depres- 
sion in the business world. 


Objects of Government Eapenditure— 


The budget estimates of the expenditure of 
the Government-General do not afford a clear 
view of the objects to which the expenditure 
was applied, for the items are in some in- 
stances given as the expenditure of the dis- 
bursing department or bureau, and this ex- 
penditure may be devoted to several different 


182 THE NEW KOREA 


objects. For example, in the budget estimates 
for the fiscal year 1921-22 the expenditure of the 
local offices of the Government-General is given 
as 82,980,000 yen, and the expenditure on police 
is given as 378,000 yen. This latter sum repre- 
sents, in fact, the cost of the central police admin- 
istration; whilst the actual cost of the police force 
throughout the country accounted for about 23 
million yen out of the 33 million yen set against 
the budget item “Local Offices of the Govern- 
ment-General.”” Again, the budget item, “Edu- 
cation,’ shows in 1921-22 an expenditure of 
about three million yen, whereas the actual ex- 
penditure on education under all items of the 
Government-General’s budget exceeded six mil- 
lion yen. 

The following table has been made up by ana- 
lyzing the figures in the budgets according to the 
objects to which they were devoted, and recom- 
bining them under the several heads. 

It will be observed that the largest single item 
of expenditure in each year is “Government Un- 
dertakings.” These include the Government 
Railways, the Government Printing Office 
(abolished in 1923), the Tobacco Monopoly, the 
Ginseng Monopoly, Salt Manufacture, Sale of 
Opium (in charge of the Police Bureau, formerly 
in charge of the Monopoly Bureau), the Manu- 
facture and Sale of Weights and Measures, For- 
ests, Prison Work, the Lumber Station. Com- 


GOVERNMENT FINANCE 183 


EstmmAaTep EXPENDITURE BY THE GOVERNMENT-GENERAL OF Korma, 
Cassiriep AccorpinG To Its Ossects 


(In thousands of yen. 1 yen=50 cents U. S.) 









Objects 1920 | 1921 | 1922 | 1923 | 1924 






















Prince Yi Household........ 1,500) 1,800 1,800! 1,800 
Central Administration...... 5,483] 6,936 7,786| 8,227 
Local Administration. ...... 8,503 10,711) 11,096 
Law Courts and Prisons..... 6,034, 7,117 7,295} 7,561 
Police ee ea Aart ire a 16,702) 22,754) 22,265) 21,924) 22,402 
Medical and Sanitary....... 1,765} 1,882) 1,656} 1,735) 1,747 
Education ioe oes tans 4,595| 6,099} 7,279) 5,995) 6,017 






11,757, 10,627; 11,724 


Encouragement of Industry..| 5,864] 8,798 
57,653) 51,241) 45,352 


Government Undertakings. ..| 33,570} 68,742 









Repairs and Construction....| 8,897; 8,582) 6,298} 4,703) 4,312 
Public Debt Charges........ 7,441| 9,485) 11,700) 12,797; 13,568 
Reserve Hund). 23.05 0g 2,500} 2,500) 2,500) 2500) 3,250 
Roads and other Public Works} 7,108} 6,743 7,914) 6,182] 4,621 







Miscellaneous.............. 4,351 900| 2,142) 1,083) 1,018 


ef ef ef | 





munications (Post, Telegraph, and Telephone), 
the Water-works (transferred to Municipal 
Bodies in 1922), and the Heijo Coal Mine Sta- 
tion (transferred to the Japanese Navy in 1922). 

In respect of the items, “Local Admunistra- 
tion” and “Education,” it must be borne in mind 
that most of the expenditure on these objects is, 
in accordance with the decentralization policy of 
Governor-General Saito, carried on the budgets 
of Local Finance. These expenditures are given 
in Chapter V. It is sufficient here to remark that 
the total of the Local Finance Budget increased 
from less than a million yen in 1910 to more than 
19 million yen in 1923-24, 


184 THE NEW KOREA 


The Korean National Debi— 


The following account of the Korean National 
Debt is taken in the main from the Annual 
Report on Adminstration of Chosen, 1922-23, 
compiled by the Government-General. 

Under the old Korean régime there existed no 
national debt lawfully raised by the Government. 
The credit of the national treasury was far too 
poor to admit of such being contracted, and plans 
laid for the welfare of the people were pigeon- 
holed almost as soon as conceived owing to the 
lack of means to carry them on to anything like 
fruition. 

In 1904 the Korean Authorities, acting on the 
suggestion of the Japanese financial adviser, de- 
termined to make a fundamental reconstruction 
of the administrative system, and thereby rescue 
the country from its helpless condition and lay 
the foundation for national development. 

But, to do this the Government realized there 
was no other way than to resort to a national loan 
for raising the funds necessary for that purpose, 
and Exchequer Bonds for 2,000,000 yen were, 
for the first time in the history of the country, 
floated in Tokyo in 1905 and the proceeds ap- 
plied to the adjustment of the Annual Account. 
From then on, several loans were made to get 
funds for the adjustment of the currency system, 
industrial undertakings, monetary circulation, 


GOVERNMENT FINANCE 185 


and the various plans and enterprises taken in 
hand for the development of the Peninsula. ‘The 
total of these loans amounted to 32,190,658 yen 
in all, of which 1,500,000 yen was loaned free of 
interest by the Imperial Government of Japan 
as a monetary circulation fund, and the rest at a 
yearly interest of 6 to 6.5 per cent was advanced 
by various Japanese banks and the Korean bank. 

From 1908 onwards, loans amounting to 
13,282,623 yen in all were advanced by the Im- 
perial Government of Japan for unlimited peri- 
ods and free of interest, to meet the increased 
expenditure necessary for the improvement of 
the administration. On the other hand, the Pub- 
lic Loan Special Account was established to 
make adjustment of all these loans, and by 
August 28, 1910, the eve of annexation, the ex- 
chequer bonds of 2,000,000 yen had been re- 
deemed, and the net balance of the national debt 
on the same day stood at 45,590,106 yen. 

As a result of the annexation, the redemption 
of the bonds for the monetary circulation fund 
(1,500,000 yen) and the loans contracted for 
administrative purposes (13,282,623 yen), all 
advanced by the Tokyo Government, became un- 
necessary, and the debt incurred by the currency 
adjustment was transferred, by a law issued in 
March, 1911, to the Special Account of the Cur- 
rency Adjustment Fund of the Imperial Gov- 
ernment. At the same time the Government- 


186 THE NEW KOREA 


General borrowed 2,094,677 yen from the Bank 
of Chosen for the construction of roads, subsidies 
for local engineering works, and enlargement of 
Heijo Coal Mine Station. The total debt to be 
borne by the Government-General at the end of 
the fiscal year 1910 was thus reduced to 21,175,- 
422 yen only. 

After 1911 the annual revenue of Chosen was 
not sufficient to meet the expenditure on continu- 
ous undertakings found necessary for the devel- 
opment of the Peninsula. It was decided, there- 
fore, to resort to public loans for the raising of 
funds required for harbor-works, construction 
and repair of roads and railways, ete. 

The maximum amount of national bonds to be 
issued by the Government-General was fixed in 
1911 at 56,000,000 yen by the Industrial Bond 
Special Account Law. But the enlargement of 
Heijo Coal Mine Station and the progress of 
other Government undertakings made it neces- 
sary to raise the maximum issue to 96,000,000 
yen. The amount, however, being still considered 
insufficient, it was again raised to 168,000,000 
yen in March, 1918, and to 178,000,000 yen in 
March, 1919. 

In the past few years the pressing need of pro- 
viding for cultural plans has necessitated in- 
crease in the amount practically each year; thus 
in August, 1920, it was raised to 206,500,000 yen 
to admit of the enlargement of Government hos- 


GOVERNMENT FINANCE 187 


pitals, police offices, prisons, and salt fields; in 
March, 1921, to 230,600,000 yen to allow for the 
flotation of a public loan to pay the compensation 
called for by the establishment of the tobacco 
monopoly; and in March, 1922-23, to 393,700,000 
yen. 

Later statistics than those given in the Annual 
Report for 1922-23 show that the total amount 
of loans contracted since the annexation of 1910 
down to March 31, 1925, was, in round figures, 
443 million yen, of which 108 million was for con- 
version transactions. During the same period 
189 million was repaid,.leaving the outstanding 
amount of debt on March 31, 1925, at 254 mil- 
lion yen. This is equal to approximately 14.5 
yen ($7.25) per head of the population. The 
rate of interest on the various loans has varied 
with the condition of the money market from 
year to year. ‘The average has been between 5 
and 514 per cent. Most of the borrowing has 
been done for short terms, of three to five years. 


CHAPTER IX 
EDUCATION 


The principles in conformity with which the 
present educational system of Korea is operated 
are derived from certain general precepts set 
forth in an Imperial Rescript promulgated on 
October 30, 1890, by the late Emperor Meiji of 
Japan. The Rescript was originally issued for 
the guidance of the Japanese people; but in 1911, 
the year following the annexation of Korea, an 
Imperial Message extended its application to the 
new dependency. ‘The essential educational 
principles are laid down in the following para- 
graph: 


Be filial to your parents, affectionate to your 
brothers and sisters; as husbands and wives be har- 
monious, as friends true; bear yourselves in modesty 
and moderation; extend your benevolence to all; pur- 
sue learning and cultivate the arts, and thus develop 
your intellectual faculties and perfect your morality; 
furthermore, be solicitous of the common-weal and 
of the public interest; should emergency arise, offer 
yourselves courageously to the State. 


An educational system having as its aim the 
188 


EDUCATION 189 


creation of a citizenry after the ideal model 
erected in the Rescript is charged with a task far 
transcending in scope that undertaken, in prac- 
tice, by the public schools of the United States. 
The Rescript, in fact, contains only six words 
which we can identify with the main purpose, or 
at any rate with the main actual function of the 
American public school—scholastic instruction. 

In a Notification issued by the Government- 
General to the teachers of Korea on January 4, 
1916, the three controlling motives of educational 
policy are declared: 

(1) The fostering of loyalty and of filial piety 
are to be made the radical principles of educa- 
tion, and special attention is to be given to the 
cultivation of moral sentiments. 

(2) Practical utility shall always be held in 
view when imparting instruction. 

(3) Robust physical development is to be 
striven for. : 

In enlarging upon these principles, the Noti- 
fication explains that by adhering to the first 
principle men will be made good subjects of 
their Emperor, and good sons to their parents, 
and will acquire those habits of diligence and 
thrift which lead to social and business success, 
and to the enhancement of the prosperity of the 
nation. 

Referring to the necessity of making education 
the handmaiden of practical, as well as of patri- 


190 THE NEW KOREA 


otic and of moral, purposes, the Notification 
says: 


The object of education is to raise up practical 
men able to meet the requirements of the State. How 
can it be expected that a man will establish himself 
and succeed in life, thus advancing the national in- 
terest, if he devotes himself to vain argument, and 
thus becomes of little use to the world, or if he is 
averse to industry and labor, and neglects the prac- 
tice thereof? 

It is therefore required of persons engaged in 
educational work that they pay earnest attention to 
the principle of the utilization of knowledge, to the 
promotion of the national welfare, and to the impart- 
ing of useful instruction, so that practical persons, 
able to meet the national requirements, will be found 
to be the rule and not the exception in the Empire. 


The Notification proceeds to lay down nine 
rules for the guidance of teachers. ‘These are 
reprinted in the Appendices. Their gist is that 
the individuality of each pupil must be carefully 
studied, and the tuition adjusted to the individ- 
ual character and circumstances; that education 
must also adjust itself to the needs of the times 
and to the general condition of the people; that 
adhesion to conventional forms is harmful, and 
that teachers should, therefore, devise varied 
methods of imparting physical, moral, and intel- 
lectual instruction; that every occasion must be 
availed of so to guide pupils that they will be- 


EDUCATION 191 


come by habit lenient towards others but strict 
towards themselves, industrious, thrifty, honest, 
and trustworthy; that the various studies must 
be co-ordinated, so that each will supplement and 
not conflict with others; that the general aim 
must be to give a mastery of a narrower, rather 
than a superficial acquaintance with a broader 
field of knowledge; that everything must be done 
to engage the interest of the pupils and to estab- 
lish sound methods of study, so that the pupils 
may desire to supplement their school training by 
self-training; that physical robustness must be 
contributed to by gymnastics and games; that the 
attitude of the teacher should combine affection 
with dignity, and example with precept; teachers 
must realize that far-reaching as well as imme- 
diate results are to be held in view; that the 
beneficent results of education cannot be ex- 
pected to flow from scholastic instruction alone, 
and that teachers must, therefore, aim to advance 
the objects of education by taking frequent coun- 
sel among themselves, and by keeping on friendly 
terms with the elders of the local communities. 


Historical Development of the System— 

The educational system of Korea as it exists 
today represents the results of a slow process of 
evolution whose beginnings date back to the year 
A.D. 1398, in which year the Korean King Tai- 
cho, founder of the Yi Dynasty, established a 


192 THE NEW KOREA 


university in Seoul, the capital city of Korea, 
and caused schools to be organized in the provin- 
cial districts. 

During the reign of Tai-chong, the third ruler 
of the Yi Dynasty, four schools, preparatory for 
the university, were founded in Seoul. ‘These 
institutions were all under Government control, 
and their up-keep was provided for by granting 
them endowments of farms and of the services of 
the slaves necessary to work them. 

The education supplied in the university and 
in the schools was based on the Chinese model, 
that is to say the principal subject of study was 
the works of Confucius, and the principal reward 
held out to the students was the prospect of pass- 
ing the final literary examination which would 
give them official rank and make them per- 
manently eligible for official appointments. 

Apart from the Government schools, there 
existed throughout the provinces a great number 
of private establishments, called sohtang, in 
which the sole subject of instruction was the 
reading and writing of the Chinese characters. 

The system above described existed, without 
substantial change, for about five hundred years. 
If it did not produce any type of scholar other 
than the Confucian philosopher, it served well 
enough the needs of a predominantly agricultural 
population from which all avenues of change 
were cut off by an intense national conservatism, 


EDUCATION 193 


and by an almost complete isolation from the 
modern progress of the Western world. 

At the time of the China-Japan war of 1894, 
the King of Korea renounced the historic suze- 
rainty of China; and Japan became the natural 
heir to the influence which its great neighbor had 
for so many centuries exerted in the affairs of 
the Peninsula. In the Korean educational sys- 
tem there followed a period of ten years during 
which the Japanese, as part of their efforts to 
introduce a general reform of the native admin- 
istration, turned their attention to the schools of 
Korea. 

Acting on the advice of the Japanese Min- 
ister at Seoul, the King of Korea promised a 
thorough reorganization of the educational sys- 
tem. ‘The undertaking met with little success, 
partly because the new regulations were framed 
almost exactly along the lines of those in force in 
Japan, without reference to the many differences 
presented by the general social conditions of the 
two countries; partly because there was prac- 
tically no supply of Korean teachers capable of 
making the regulations effective. 

Matters assumed a new aspect with the estab- 
lishment of the Japanese protectorate in 1905. 
In conformity with the terms of the agreements 
by which this arrangement was effected, a Japan- 
ese educational adviser, vested with administra- 
tive functions, was appointed by the Govern- 


194 THE NEW KOREA 


ment. In order to assist the carrying out of the 
changes which were now to be effected, a sum of 
500,000 yen was placed at the disposal of the edu- 
cational authorities by Prince Ito, the Japanese 
Resident-General, out of a total sum of five mil- 
lion, borrowed from the Industrial. Bank of 
Japan in 1906, for the purpose of facilitating 
various public undertakings. 

Omitting the numerous changes effected in 
school management, and in school curricula, the 
broad features of the educational reforms carried 
out at this time may be summarized as follows: 

(1) The Education of Girls. Hitherto the 
Government of Korea had made little provision 
for female education; and Korean girls had been 
chiefly dependent in this respect upon the schools 
founded by the various Christian missionary 
bodies. In 1908, however, a girls’ high school 
was established at Seoul by the Korean Govern- 
ment. 

(2) Commercial Education. A Commercial, 
Agricultural, and Technical School had been 
founded in 1904, and a private Commercial 
School in 1906. ‘The latter owed its existence to 
the generosity of Baron Okura, who expended 
200,000 yen on the project. 

In conformity with the new policy three sep- 
arate Government schools were built, for Com- 
merce, Agriculture, and Technology, respec- 
tively. From this small beginning there devel- 


EDUCATION 195 


oped, in the course of about six years, ten public 
schools devoted to agriculture or forestry, and 
two devoted to commerce. 

(3) Supervision of Private Schools. During 
the first few years of the Protectorate there arose 
a strong popular demand for increased educa- 
tional facilities. The demand ran far ahead of 
anything that the Government, with reference to 
financial considerations, could do to satisfy it. 
The result was that hundreds of private schools 
sprang up all over the country, province vying 
with province to take the lead in this direction. 

This rapid development was accompanied by 
certain abuses to which the Government could 
not remain indifferent. In the effort to finance 
these schools questionable methods were resorted 
to by many of the interested parties; in not a few 
cases the schools were schools in name rather than 
in fact, and became centers of amusement rather 
than of study; in others the text-books supplied 
to the children were found to be quite unsuitable 
to the purposes of a sound education. 

It was, therefore, decided to bring all private 
schools under the direct supervision of the Gov- 
ernment. ‘This was accomplished in 1908 by the 
promulgation of the Private School Regulations. 
According to official statistics compiled in 1910 
the number of private schools recognized by the 
Department of Education was 2,220, of which 
mission schools numbered 823. 


196 THE NEW KOREA 


Owing to events which are described in another 
chapter, Korea was annexed to the Japanese Em- 
pire in August, 1910. With the concurrent lapse 
of all Korean official authority the educational 
system passed under the full control of the newly 
created Government-General. : 

In the first Annual Report issued by the new 
administration, considerable space is devoted to 
education. ‘The official point of view is ex- 
pressed, as to general educational policy, in the 
following quotation: 


The educational administration in the Peninsula 
had hitherto been carried out by two different offices. 
Education for native Koreans was conducted by the 

Educational Department of the late Korean Govern- 
ment, under the guidance of the Resident-General, 
while education for Japanese children in Korea was 
supervised by the Local Affairs Department of the 
Residency-General. When the Government-General 
came into existence after annexation, all educational 
administration, both for Japanese and Koreans alike, 
was brought under the uniform supervision of the 
Educational Bureau created in the Home Depart- 
ment of the Government-General. 

It was decided, however, that the dual system of 
education—Korean schools for Korean children and 
Japanese schools for Japanese children—which had 
hitherto existed in the Peninsula, should be continued 
hereafter, since different standards of living did not 
allow amalgamation. The education for Japanese 
children being practically on the same system as that 


EDUCATION 197 


prevailing in Japan proper, did not need modification 
in the near future; whereas the educational system 
for native Koreans, though certain improvements had 
been made during the Protectorate régime, required 
further reforms so as to meet existing conditions. 
At the same time, readjustment of the educational 
system required much careful consideration, since any 
hasty reforms at the period of annexation were not 
likely to secure good results. 


A year later the new educational system for 
Koreans was put into effect by an Imperial Ordi- 
nance, issued in August, 1911, and in October of 
the same year the Governor-General promul- 
gated an Ordinance, setting forth the complete 
rules and regulations applicable to schools in 
which Koreans were to be taught. 

The progress made in providing educational 
facilities for Koreans between the first fiscal year 
before annexation and the first complete fiscal 
year after annexation may be judged by the fol- 
lowing figures. In 1909 there were 139 public 
schools for Koreans, in 1911 there were 280; in 
1909 there were 16,506 Korean students in the 
schools, in 1911 there were 30,201; in 1909 there 
were 731 teachers in these schools, in 1911 there 
were 1,295. 


The Present State of the Educational System— 


The present state of the Educational System 
of Korea reflects the combined influences of sev- 


198 THE NEW KOREA 


eral factors. Of these the more important have 
‘been the constantly increasing expenditure on 
education, the carrying out during the past five 
years of the progressive cultural policy Iaugu- 
rated by the present Governor-General, Viscount 
Saito, the work of the Extraordinary Educa- 
tional Investigation Committee of 1920, . the 
promulgation of the new Chosen Educational 
Ordinance of 1922, and the marked improvement 
which has occurred in the general social condi- 
tions of the Koreans, due to the rapid economic 
development of the country since annexation. 

The gradual rise in the standard of living of 
the Koreans, especially of those who live in or 
near the larger towns, and the growing enthusi- 
asm amongst them for educational opportunities, 
have led on the one hand to a large increase in the 
number of schools for Koreans, and on the other 
to the modification of the principle of separate 
schools for Koreans and for Japanese. 

The co-education of the two races is spreading 
to such an extent that the authorities realize that 
it is no longer possible to retain the classification 
of the schools into those for Japanese and those 
for Koreans. In Colleges, Normal Schools, and 
Industrial and Commercial Schools, racial co- 
education only is the rule. So far as primary 
and secondary education are concerned the 
schools are now classified as being for “those 
habitually using the Korean language,” and for 


EDUCATION 199 


“those habitually using the Japanese language.” 
Thus, Koreans may attend the schools primarily 
for Japanese, and vice versa. 

In respect of their management the schools in 
Korea are divided into three classes. A Govern- 
ment School is one conducted directly by the 
Government-General; a Public School is one 
maintained either by a provincial body, or by a 
Korean District Educational body, or by a 
Japanese School Association; a Private School is 
one, either secular or religious, maintained by a 
private body or by an individual. 

Private Schools are divided officially into two 
main groups. Of these, one comprises schools 
which comply in full with the requirements of the 
Government school system; and these are 
granted the same privileges as a Government 
School. In Government documents they are de- 
scribed simply as Regular Schools; whereas in 
unofficial literature they are usually referred to 
as Recognized Schools. The other group of 
Private Schools comprises what are known ofli- 
cially as Various, or Non-Standardized Schools, 
and unofficially as Non-recognized Schools. 
They fall into two classes—Designated Schools, 
and Non-designated Schools—the former being 
those which though not fully conforming to the 
requirements of the regular school system are 
possessed of equipment and efficiency approved 
by the Government as equal to that of Govern- 


200 THE NEW KOREA 


ment Schools of the same grade. They are 
granted the same privileges as Government 
Schools in regard to the admission of their gradu- 
ates to the higher educational institutions in 
Korea. A Non-designated School is one which 
has failed to secure the approval referred to 
above. 

Before presenting some figures relating to 
the schools in Korea it is necessary to refer to 
the serious discrepancies which exist between the 
statistics given in the official publications of 
the Government-General and those printed in 
the annual volume The Christian Movement in 
Japan, Korea, and Formosa, published by the 
Federation of Christian Missions, Japan. The 
explanation is that in the official statistics soh- 
tang, private establishments somewhat similar to 
the ancient dame-schools, are not included, since 
they are not considered worthy to be classed as 
schools. ‘The missionary statistics, on the other 
hand, include establishments of this rudimentary 
character. This is quite natural, for the mission- 
ary reports offer to their readers an account of 
the total activities undertaken. Furthermore, 
with reference to such expressions as “Common 
School,’ and “Higher Common School,” the 
official statistics count under them only such 
schools as have a definite, recognized official 
standing based on the Government Regulations, 
whereas the missionary publications include 


EDUCATION 201 


under those heads schools which do approxi- 
mately the same grade of work as the Govern- 
ment schools so designated. The matter has been 
taken up between the Government-General and 
the Federal Council of Missions; and an agreed 
terminology for educational data is under con- 
sideration. 

All the statistics given in this Chapter are 
taken from official sources. 

In respect of the entry “Common Schools” 
maintained by District Educational Bodies in 
1914 it is to be remarked that such bodies were 
not in existence at that time, and that the ex- 
pense of maintaining them was provided for from 
the Imperial Donation Fund, fees, contributions, 
State and Provincial subsidies, and an assessment 
levied upon Koreans (these schools being at that 
time exclusively for the use of Korean children) 
on a basis similar to that now followed by the 
District Educational Bodies, which were founded 
in 1920. 

The management of Government Middle 
Schools, Higher Common Schools, and Girls’ 
Higher Common Schools was transferred to 
Provincial Bodies in 1925. In addition to the 
free concession of all the premises and other 
properties belonging to those schools, the Gov- 
ernment-General grants the various Provincial 
Bodies subsidies equal to 80 per cent of the an- 
nual expenditure incurred by the Government in 


202 THE 


NEW KOREA 


NuMBER or SCHOOLS AND OF TEACHERS IN KoREA 





Schools maintained by 


The Government-General: 


Higher Common......... 
Girls Higher Common.... 
Agricultural, (cic Queues 
Tridustrial iyo ue La 


INGEIIRL Che ea eeu 


Provincial Bodies: 
Agricultural). 2) %0'04 35044 
Commercials yen 20 fu ai, 
DNCLUSTRIAL 0 Gee ae els 
Mishery aise, ke seek eet 
Elementary Agriculture. . 
Elementary Commercial.. 
Elementary Industrial... . 
IVORMAL Loerie, wu 


School Associations: 
Elementary... ec 
Middle ae cae Gk 
Girls High iti, 


Commercial i" ts 2 pave 


Private Bodies or Indivi- 


duals: 
Elementary............. 
COMMON... Se eins s 
Higher Common........ 
Girls’ Higher Common... 
Commercial 07.3 fon 
Senmon Gakko (Colleges). 
Non-Standardized: 

Secular si. sh Ase ee. 


* Japanese. 


Schools Teachers 
1914 1924 
j.* | Kt | J.*/| Kf [Et 


ee eel 


1914 | 1924 


0 1 0 0; 20 0; 0 
2 3 0 OF 1S ea Ag ASO 
2 9} 37 0| 217 0} 4 
2} 14) 55 19) 261 36; 1 
1 By AT 6} 35 10; 0 
0 1 0 0; 14 1; 0 
0 1 0 0} 27 2| O 
1 5} 16 1} 169 8} 2 
0 1 0 0| 37 Bik 
0 1 0 0 16 0; 0 
15| 20} 65) 24) 128) 34) O 
Bi LOT eds SB | 13} 3 
0 1 0 0 18 1; 0 
0 4 0 Ory dO 6; 0 
53 6} 96) 84 13 7 O 
4 7 10 5} 39 9, 0 
1 7 3 2| 33 7| 0 
0; 13 0 0} 113; 22 O 


ee | a en | er | 


mm | cs | | es | 


——— SS eS = | S| 


0 1 0 0 1 0| O 
20; 51 28; 74) 26) 258) 4 
2 8 ve orang & | 42; 141) 11 
2 6.18 1S SOP oeD ss 
1 3; 12 2| 382 9} 4 
1 3} 14 0; 18 36) 21 


776) 374) 147|2,571| 230) 1,223) 3 
473| 271 32/ 2,052} 61/1,163)115 


t Korean. $ Foreign. 


EDUCATION 203 


recent years in their management, viz., in round 
figures, 530 thousand yen to Provincial Bodies 
for the nine Middle Schools, 656 thousand yen 
for the fourteen Higher Common Schools, and 
108 thousand yen for the two Girls’ Higher 
Common Schools. 

The number of students in the schools enumer- 
ated in the foregoing table has increased between 
1911 and 1924 from 110,789 to 542,679, the 
greatest increase being in the number attending 
the Common Schools, which rose from 20,121 to 
361,710 (almost entirely Korean children), and 
the Elementary Schools, which rose from 15,509 
to 56,049 (almost entirely Japanese children). 

The above figures do not include the pupils in 
two classes of institutions—IKindergartens, and 
Sohtang. ‘The number of children in the former 
increased from 606 in 1911 to 4,510 in 1924; in 
the latter from 141,604 to 256,851. The Sohtang 
are elementary private schools conducted by 
Koreans, in which little is taught except the 
Chinese classics and brush writing. 

At the time this volume goes to press no de- 
tails are available as to the courses of instruction 
established in the newly-founded University, or 
of the number of students who have entered it. 


~ 


204 THE NEW KOREA 


The School Curriculum— 


The curricula of the schools vary, of course, 
according to the kind of school—Common, In- 
dustrial, Commercial, Higher Common, and so 
on. I select for description the standard cur- 
riculum of a Common School having a six-year 
course. 


Morals. 1 hour a week for the whole course, on the 
essential points of morals. 

National Language. 10 hours a week for the first 
year, 12 for the second and third, and fourth, 
9 for the fifth and sixth. 

Korean Language. 4 hours a week for the first and 
second year, 3 for the rest of the course. 

Arithmetic. A progressive course leading up to vul- 
gar fractions, percentage, and the use of the 
abacus. 5 hours a week during the first two 
years, 6 in the third and fourth, 4 in the fifth 
and sixth. 

Japanese History. 2 hours a week in the fifth and 
sixth years. 

Geography. 2 hours a week in the last two years. 

Natural Science. 2 hours a week in the last three 
years. 

Drawmg. 1 hour a week in the fourth year, and 2 
hours for boys and 8 for girls in the fifth and 
sixth years. 

Stging. 1 hour a week throughout the course. 

Gymnastics, Drill, and Sports. Varies for boys and 
for girls, averages about 2 hours a week through- 
out the course. 


EDUCATION 205 


Sewing. 2 hours in the fourth year, and 3 hours in 
the fifth and sixth. 

Manual Work. In the first, second, and third year 
manual work may be taught 1 hour per week, 
and in the fourth and fifth year 2 hours. 


In the first, second, and third years drawing 
may be taught one hour per week. With regard 
to practical exercises, they may be given outside 
the stated number of hours for instruction. 


Salaries of Teachers— 

Presidents of colleges and universities receive 
salaries varying from 4,500 yen to 5,200 yen per 
annum, and if they are Japanese they receive in 
addition a Colonial allowance of 40 per cent of 
the salary, and, if official residence is not pro- 
vided, a rent allowance of from 600 to 700 yen. 

Professors in colleges and universities, and 
Principals of Normal, Industrial, and Secondary 
(High) schools fall into 12 salary grades, receiv- 
ing from 1,200 to 4,500 yen per annum with, for 
Japanese, 40 per cent as Colonial allowance, and 
rent allowance of from 312 to 896 yen. 

Other teachers, in all kinds of schools, are 
classified in one of eleven grades of Sonin rank, 
or are of Hannin rank. Those of Sonin rank 
receive an annual salary of from 1,100 to 3,800 
yen, with, for Japanese, 40 per cent Colonial 
allowance, and a rent allowance of from 312 to 
396 yen. Those of Hannin rank receive from 


206 THE NEW KOREA 


480 to 1,920 yen per annum, with 60 per cent 
Colonial allowance, and rent allowance of from 
156 to 264 yen for Japanese. 


Religion in the Schools— 

The question of religious instruction in the 
schools of Korea has been the subject of a great 
deal of heated and ill-informed discussion. The 
facts are quite simple and are accessible to any- 
one who desires to get at the truth of the matter. 
The Chosen Educational Ordinance was put into 
effect in 1911. * New Regulations were issued 
under this Ordinance in 1915, by which the teach- 
ing of the Bible and the holding of religious exer- 
cises were prohibited as a part of the regular 
curriculum in private schools that wished to be 
recognized by the Government-General as grad- 
ing with the Government schools of equal cur- 
riculum,)and to claim for their graduates privi- 
leges similar to those granted to graduates of the 
Government schools. As a matter of public 
policy such a rule was essential to the organiza- 
tion of a sound educational system, and for a 
plain reason. To all schools, whether public or 
private, which fall within the regular school sys- 
tem, a definite grade is assigned—Common, 
Higher Common, and so on—and for each grade 
a fixed curriculum is prescribed, assigning a defi- 
nite number of hours per week to the study of the 
different subjects. 


EDUCATION 207 


It is obvious, therefore, that if a private school 
were allowed to vary the prescribed curriculum, 
the description “Common School Graduate” 
would mean as many different things as there 
were different curricula. Any private school 
which teaches the prescribed curriculum for its 
grade and meets the requirements of the Gov- 
ernment in respect of the quality of its teachers, 
the school equipment, and so on, is free to read 
the Bible, give religious instruction, and conduct 
religious exercises within the school premises, 
provided it carries on these activities outside the 
hours for the official curriculum; and it can re- 
ceive Government recognition of its grade, with 
the right to the attendant privileges. 

New Regulations issued in 1923 go further 
than this. On this point the Rev. Alfred W. 
Wasson, Treasurer of the Korea Mission of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, South, writes ex- 
plicitly in the Korea Mission Field, July, 1923, in 
an article on the “Significance of the New Edu- 
cational Ruling of the Governor-General.” 


The new ruling [he says] provides a way for 
church schools to obtain a different kind of recogni- 
tion which will leave them with unrestricted liberty 
of religious instruction and at the same time permits 
them to enjoy some of the privileges of schools having 
full government recognition. In order not to be mis- 
leading, it is necessary to add that, as a matter of 
fact, mission schools which have obtained full govern- 


208 THE NEW KOREA 


ment recognition do give regular and systematic 
religious instruction. This is not done clandestinely 
nor in violation of the law. It is done with the full 
knowledge and consent of the authorities, and it is 
not contrary to the law, provided it is given outside 
of the prescribed curriculum. 

Under the former régime only special and tem- 
porary permission was granted to conforming schools 
to use the school buildings as the places for holding 
chapel services and giving this extra-curriculum 
religious instruction. Under Baron Saito this per- 
mission has been made general and permanent. 


Educational Finance— 


The personnel and office expenses for educa- 
tional administration are incorporated in the ex- 
penditure of the central and local offices of the 
Government-General, and are met by the State 
Treasury. Apart from the items referred to 
above, the educational expenditure is met by the 
Government-General, and by three classes of 
Public Corporations, viz., provincial bodies, Dis- 
trict Educational bodies, and School <Associa- 
tions. 

The Government-General supports its own in- 
stitutions—ranging from the Imperial Univer- 
sity to elementary schools. In addition it grants 
educational subsidies to local bodies, meets the 
expense of compiling text-books, of sending 
students to Japan and to foreign countries, and 


EDUCATION 209 


of giving short courses of instruction for various 
special objects. 

Provincial bodies support Normal Schools, 
Industrial Schools, and Secondary Schools. 
They subsidize the educational work of other 
local bodies, and meet the cost of various kinds 
of social and educational encouragement. Their 
sources of revenue are local taxes, subsidies from 
the Government-General, receipts from the Im- 
perial Donation Fund, and from properties, fees, 
contributions, provincial loans, and some minor 
sources. 

District Educational bodies meet the expense 
of Common Schools, which are primarily for 
Koreans. Their sources of revenue are assess- 
ments on Koreans, subsidies from the Govern- 
ment-General and from provincial bodies, re- 
ceipts from properties, fees, contributions, 
district loans, and some minor sources. 

School Associations meet the expenses of 
Elementary, Secondary, and Industrial Schools 
established primarily for Japanese. 'Their rev- 
enue is derived from assessments on Japanese, 
and from other sources similar to those drawn on 
by the District Educational bodies. 

The following table gives the total expenditure 
on education in Korea for the fiscal years 1919-20 
to 1923-24 and for the year 1913-14, as a basis of 
comparison. The figures do not include the cost 
of the personnel and office management of the 


210 THE NEW KOREA 


educational administration in the Central and 
Local Governments, which is met by the State 
Treasury out of generalrevenue. The figures are 
to the nearest thousand yen. The open figures 
represent the direct expenditure on education by 
the indicated agencies; the figures in brackets 
represent grants-in-aid (subsidies) made by the 
indicated agency to agencies subsidiary to it. All 
the subsidies become, of course, direct expendi- 
tures as they go down the line. The total ex- 
penditure of the year is, therefore, that of the 
open figures in the columns. 


Pusuic EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION 
(In thousands of yen. 1 yen=50 cents U. S.) 


Expenditure by 1913-14 | 1919-20 | 1920-21 |1921-22 | 1922-23 |1923-24* 
The Government-General: 
Direct ey Ue 550 | 1,536 | 2,493 | 4,155 | 4,172 | 5,033 
Subsidies oo es (686) (1,755) (2,968)|(3,596)| (4,052) (2,861) 
Provincial Bodies: 
Directshow ahaa 428 789 725 | 1,271 | 2,049 | 3,091 
Suberdies! Tis 4 ements (269) |(1,737)| (3,458) (3,873) (3,953)| (2,489) 


i ee | ee | ee | ee | ee ee 


District Educational 
Bodies: Direct....... 1,157 | 3,214 | 8,157 | 10,245] 13,306) 13,903 


ee | | | | - | 


School Associations: 
DTCC Se cope en ee 555 | 2,391 | 4,354) 4,419| 5,581) 5,331 


—— i | | 


Total Expenditure. . .| 2,691 | 7,920 | 15,729|!20,089| 25,108] 27,360 


* Budget estimates. 


Both Japanese and Koreans pay school-fees, 
without exception. The average fee in a Com- 


EDUCATION 211 


mon School is about 25 cents a month, in Ele- 
mentary Schools, from 25 to 50 cents, in Higher 
Common Schools and in Middle Schools $1.25, in 
Girls’ Higher Common Schools 75 cents, in 
Girls’ High Schools from $1.50 to $2.25, in In- 
dustrial Schools $1.00, in Vocational Colleges 
$17.50 a year, and in the University Preparatory 
School $25.00 a year. 

The educational assessment levied by District 
Educational bodies, paid by Koreans, averaged 
about 20 cents for the year 1923, per capita of the 
Korean population; that levied by School Asso- 
ciations, paid by Japanese, averaged about $3.30 
per capita of the Japanese population comprised 
within all the School Associations in the country. 


al 


CHAPTER X 


MEDICAL, SANITARY, AND SOCIAL 
SERVICE 


Historical— | | 

When, after the close of the Chino-Japanese 
War, Korea became virtually a Japanese Pro- 
tectorate through the establishment of the Resi- 
dency-General in 1906, one of the first matters 
to engage the attention of Japanese officials was 
the deplorable condition of everything connected 
with public health. 

It is true that as early as 1897 the Home De- 
partment of the Korean Government had issued, 
on the advice of a Japanese expert, various 
regulations relating to vaccination, and for the 
prevention of cholera, typhoid, dysentery, and 


diphtheria, which from time to time had become 


epidemic in the Peninsula. 


But these regulations, like so many others 
issued by the old Korean Government, were 
never effectively administered. Accordingly, one 
of the earliest acts of the Residency-General was 
to engage the services of about fifty Japanese 


. physicians and to distribute them among the 


the police stations in the various provinces. 
212 


MEDICAL, SANITARY, SOCIAL SERVICE 2138 


Their special duty was to supervise vaccination 
and sanitary measures in general. 

Prior to 1906 the Korean Government main- 
tained a hospital and a medical school; and a few 
other hospitals were supported by foreign mis- 
sionary societies and by the municipal authorities 
of the various Japanese settlements in the 
country. 

The equipment and the accommodation of 
these hospitals were unsatisfactory and insuffi- 
cient; and, on the advice of the Resident-General 
the three Government hospitals and the medical 
school were amalgamated into a single institu- 
tion, called the Tai-han Hospital, situated at the 
capital city of Seoul. The Japanese Surgeon- 
General, Baron Sato, was appointed adviser as 
to buildings, equipment, staff, and so on, of the 
new hospital, and he became later its first presi- 
dent. | 

Korea is subject to outbreaks of epidemic dis- 
eases, of which the more important are cholera, 
typhoid fever, dysentery, and small-pox. Prior 
to the year 1910,very little had been done to pre- 
vent or to control these outbreaks. But in July 
of that year the police administration of Korea 
was transferred to the Japanese Residency- 
General, and Japanese Sanitary Police methods 
were gradually introduced throughout the coun- 
try. In August, 1910, Korea was annexed to 
Japan. With the establishment of the Govern- 


214 THE NEW KOREA 


ment-General a broad plan was formulated for 
giving the country a greatly improved system of 
medical and hygienic service. 

Such matters cannot be carried forward very 
rapidly where the people are ignorant of or in- 
different to the details of sanitary administra- 
tion. The initial processes of improving the 
health of a people are costly, call for highly 
skilled technicians, and demand a degree of co- 
operation from the people themselves which can 
only be secured by the rigid enforcement of 
elaborate regulations. 

In almost every instance in which a dominant 
power has undertaken to improve the health of 
people under its authority, discontent with the 
enterprise has been strong, and has not infre- 
quently found its expression in violent resistance. 
The cost gives rise to the criticism that the people 
are being over-taxed; the strict enforcement of 
the regulations to the cry that the people are 
being dragooned by their rulers. 

Fortunately the Koreans have, on the whole, 
shown an intelligent appreciation of the im- 
portance of the Japanese work in the field of 
medical service and sanitary regulation, so that 
although much remains to be done, further prog- 
ress.depends only upon the amount of money 
which can be made available. 

Kach year the Report of Reforms and Prog- 
ress in Chosen (Korea), compiled by the Gov- 


MEDICAL, SANITARY, SOCIAL SERVICE 215 


ernment-General, devotes a chapter to medical 
and sanitary matters; and it is from these chap- 
ters that the following account is taken. 

Certain measures for hygienic administration 
were put in force during the Protectorate régime, 
but their success was limited by the absence of 
co-ordinate regulations. Accordingly, in 1911 
the Japanese Law for Supervising Food, Drink, 


and other Articles was extended to Korea, and 


the necessary administrative regulations were 
promulgated. In order to secure uniformity of 
method in sanitary administration, the whole of 


ed 


this work was concentrated in the Police Affairs | 
Department of the Government-General, except | 
the work of the Central Government Hospital in | 


Seoul and of the Charity Hospitals in the 


Provinces; and the Police Affairs Department 
was provided with a chemical laboratory, its prin- 
cipal duties being to analyze samples of food- 
stuffs and of drugs and medicines sold in the 
Peninsula. 

With its long coast-line on two oceans—the 
Sea of Japan on the east, and the Yellow Sea 
on the west—and with two river frontiers on the 
north, separating the country from Manchuria 
and from Asiatic Russia, respectively, the prob- 
lem of quarantine against the introduction of 
plague and other epidemic diseases is a very dif- 
ficult one. * 

This is well illustrated by the measures taken 


216 THE NEW KOREA 


in the early days of the Government-General, 
1911, to prevent the plague raging in Manchuria 
at that time from extending to Korea; and the 
illustration serves to show that from the very first 
the Government-General has realized its respon- 
sibilities in the matter of the public health. 
When the prevalence of plagues was reported 
in October, 1910, from the Harbin district of 
Manchuria, instructions were issued to all Pro- 
vincial Police Directors, and to the police Cap- 
tains in the capital city of Keijo for adopting 
precautionary measures. Along the Yalu River 
and along the seacoast of Kokai Province, con- 
stantly visited by Chinese junks, a system of 
health-inspection was set up, and the people were 
encouraged to destroy rats. Chinese coming 
from the plague zone were subjected to ten days’ 
quarantine, whilst quarantine stations were es- 
tablished for railway traffic at Shin-gishu on the 
Korean side of the mouth of the Yalu, and at 
Heijo, about 120 miles inside Korean territory. 
By January, 1911, when the plague had ad- 
vanced to within fifty miles of the Korean bound- 
ary still more stringent measures were called for. 
A PlagnesPrevention Gomuitics aettamneds 
consisting of high civil, and medical officials; a 
general quarantine was enforced against all ves- 
sels coming from infected regions; and a patrol 
of more than a thousand police and gendarmes 
was assigned to the south bank of the Yalu to 


MEDICAL, SANITARY, SOCIAL SERVICE 217 


shut off completely the passage of Chinese coolies 
across the frozen river. This guard was supple- 
mented by police boats and a depot steamer, act- 
ing in concert with the Chinese authorities at the 
mouth of the Yalu. Similar measures were 
taken on the northeast frontier, along the Tumen 
river. 

Thanks to these rigorous precautions the 
plague was stopped at the boundaries, and not a 
single case occurred among the Koreans. 

In respect of cholera, its occurrence in epi- 
demic form has been much reduced during the 
past fifteen years, the only serious outbreaks 
having taken place in 1919 and in 1920. In the 
former year cholera caused 12,000 deaths, and in 
the latter_13,000; whilst in 1921 only one death 
from this cause was reported, in 1922 twenty- 
three deaths, and in 1924 none, 


Epidemic Diseases— 

The occurrence of epidemic diseases during the 
twelve years ending with 1923 is shown in the 
following table. In respect of cholera, the most 
serious of them, it is to be noted that only forty- 
one cases and twenty-four deaths from this cause 
were reported in the three years 1921-23. 

The statistics are official figures; but the 
medical reports warn the reader that, owing to 


failure to report, or to,concealment.of epidemic \U 


diseases on the part of the Koreans, the statistics 


218 THE NEW KOREA 


Epipemic DisEASES IN KorREA 





Cholera | Dysentery | Typhoid | Small-Pox | Scarlet 


Fever 
n ww mn mn wm 
me o o o o | 
psy Tee TEAR Comer TER dy COM Tent at een rt 
1912 122 78/ 1,945 | 400 | 1,593 | 252) 1,142 164 40 7 
1913 1 1} 1,388 | 309 |} 1,956 | 373 226 35 70| 13 
LOT She ohh ee 1,396 | 343 | 2,402 | 425 140 12 336} 121 
1915 1 1| 1,344 | 316 | 2,596 | 415 48 8 614) 156 
1916} 2,066} 1,253) 1,189 | 306 | 2,365 | 437 48 6 223| 48 
TORT Tee owe aia 2,096 | 592 | 2,397 | 599 48 5 237; 31 
LOUS ET ine Pera 1,126 | 267 | 3,750 | '703 330 111 125; 12 


1919} 16,803] 10,009} 1,522 | 407 | 3,266 | 642} 2,180} 675] 124) 21 
1920) 24,229| 13,568] 974 | 253 | 2,140 | 422 | 11,532) 3,614 | 371) 106 


1921 1 1} 978) 311} 2,535 | 485 | 8,316) 2,527 | '717| 209 
1922 40 23} 1,932 | 529 | 3,801 | 768| 3,673| 1,160 | 585) 139 
1923 0 0} 1,195 | 296 | 2,839 | 541 | 3,722) 1,120 | 1,008) 242 





cannot be regarded as accurate. All that can be 
said of them is that they are the best available. 


General Causes of Death— 

During the five years ending with 1923 the 
average annual number of deaths in Korea was 
369,000, which gives an annual average death- 
rate of approximately 21 per thousand of the 
population. 

The causes of death, ranged in the order of 
their numerical importance, were in 1923 as fol- 
lows: diseases of the nervous system 72,086, of 
the digestive tract 53,320, of the respiratory 
organs 46,691, infectious diseases 34,302, com- 
mon colds 33,022, decrepitude 18,935, diseases of 
the circulatory system 14,899, constitutional dis- 


MEDICAL, SANITARY, SOCIAL SERVICE 219 


eases 10,789, insanity 9,820, diseases of the 
genito-urinary tract 9,576, diseases of the skin 
8,128, diseases of the nose and throat 7,717. ‘The 
foregoing accounted for about 89 per cent of all 
the deaths, the remaining 11 per cent being scat- 
tered among causes none of which accounted for 
as large a number as 2 per cent of the total. 

The following sections are condensed from the 
Annual Report on Adminstration of Chosen, 
1922-23, compiled by the Government-General. 


Sanitary Hqupment— 

Formerly, sanitary..conditions. in Chosen were 
extremely bad, for there were very few native 
doctors possessed of modern knowledge and skill, 
whilst the sick were generally put into the hands 
of witches or e ad-refused to be medi- 
cally treated. / Public sanitary works were com- 
pletely lacking, and even the drinking water was 
in many cases far from healthful. In conse- 
quence, various epidemics were constantly pres- 
ent, especially lung-distoma and dochmiasis. 
The only medical agencies worth mentioning 
were the few Japanese doctors and foreign medi- 
cal missionaries practising in Keijo and a few 
other towns. 

Early in the protectorate period, therefore, the 
first step toward putting an end to these insani- 
tary conditions was taken by establishing in 
Keijo a large hospital called the Taikan Tin 


220 THE NEW KOREA 


(Korean General Hospital) and a few charity 
hospitals in other centers. At the same time, 
part of the public industrial funds were appro- 
priated for the construction of water-works in 
the chief towns. On the present régime being 
instituted, further steps were taken to effect ex- 
pansion in existing medical organs, and not only 
was the Government Hospital (the former Tai- 
kan Tin) in Keijo enlarged, but a charity hospital 
was erected in each province, and with the aid of 
the Imperial bounty granted at the time of an- 
nexation other charity hospitals were set up in 
remote districts, physicians were engaged on cir- 
cuit work in parts difficult of access, and a segre- 
gating station for lepers was established on 
Shoroku Island off South Zenra Province, a 
place noted for its salubrious climate. All these 
humane undertakings, coupled with a good dis- 
tribution throughout the country of police and 
other public doctors, have done much toward pro- 
viding needy sick people with proper medical 
care. Nor did the good work of the new régime 
along this le stop here, for care was taken that 
even those Koreans living in out-of-the-way 
frontier regions and lacking medical facilities 
should be visited by itinerant physicians, or else 
charity hospitals were established where possible 
or doctors were specially appointed to the large 
centers. 

Recognizing the pressing need for the intro- 


MEDICAL, SANITARY, SOCIAL SERVICE 221 


duction of many sanitary improvements, the 
Government first took in hand the matter of 
drinking water, and began by purchasing and 
enlarging the water-works in Keijo and con- 
structing new ones at Jinsen, Heijo, and Chin- 
nampo, while Fusan, Mokpo, Kunsan, Gensan, 
and a number of other towns were assisted in 
setting up their own systems by the grant of a 
half or more of the actual cost. Financial aid, 
too, was given for the digging of public wells 
throughout the country. At the same time the 
Treasury yearly defrayed a considerable sum of 
money to permit of timely action being taken for 
the prevention of epidemics and cattle-plague, 
with the result that even small-pox, formerly 
most virulent in Chosen, is now far less the 
scourge it was, thanks to the greater enforcement 
of vaccination among the people. In addition, 
the authorities were not lax in arranging for the 
disposal of impurities and other mnsanitary mat- 
ters, and their reward is seen in the much im- 
_ proved condition of the public health. 

© .—‘tnder the old Korean Government nothing 

was done to further the public health, but since 

the establishment of the present régime various 

sanitary regulations have been drawn up and 

made effective as popular conditions called for 

them. Among the important regulations thus 

enacted were those relating to physicians, den- 

tists, private hospitals, foods and drinks, drugs, 


222 THE NEW KOREA 


slaughter-houses, house cleaning, scavengering, 

° ° Pitta ase ” 
burial-grounds, crematories, plagué prevention, 
disinfection, and quarantine. 


Expansion of Medical Organs— 
As already alluded to, charity hospitals were 


founded in important towns and public doctors 
stationed in various places. At the end of 1919 
the number of hospitals was twenty and public 
doctors 216. These proving inadequate to serve 
the public efficiency, extension and increase was 
carried out as provided for in the supplementary 
budget of the fiscal year 1920, and the close of 
this year saw twenty-four charity hospitals in full 
working order. 

Although popular confidence in the Govern- 
ment Hospital and Provincial Charity Hospitals 
steadily grew stronger, there still remained much 
to be done to make them more worthy of that 
confidence, and a scheme was elaborated for 
building more hospitals and making increase in 
the medical force, at the same time bettering its 
treatment, between the fiscal years 1919 and 1923 
at the cost of 2,500,000 yen. Further considera- 
tion making it plain that the scheme was still too 
narrow a one, it was decided in 1920 to enlarge it 
at an additional cost of 4,590,000 yen, and to 
extend the period of its completion to 1926. A 
plan was also drawn up to establish thirteen more 
local charity hospitals. 


XN 


MEDICAL, SANITARY, SOCIAL SERVICE 2238 


As only a few sanitary experts were at first 
stationed in the country, the investigation and 
prevention of plague could not be conducted 
satisfactorily, so, in the fiscal year 1920, thirteen 
experts and twenty-six assistants were addition- 
ally appointed in the provinces, and thirty more 
public doctors sent to the remoter places. 


The Central Health Society— 


Along with the increase in factories, schools, 
and waterworks, undertakings connected with the 
public health have also increased, and the need 
for a sanitary advisory organ for the Govern- 
ment was not long in manifesting itself. Accord- 
ingly, on July 14, 1920, regulations were issued 
for a Central Health Society to be formed with 
the Administrative Superintendent as president, 
the members of it to be selected from officials and 
private individuals, and its first general meeting 
took place in October of 1921. At the same time 
a special committee was organized in much the 
same manner as the Society to deal with plague 
investigation and prevention. 


Hygienc Inspection— 


Hygienic inspection is most indispensable in 
connection with the official control of foods, 
drinks, containers, and drugs, so from 1913 on- 
ward the provincial governments were gradually 


224 THE NEW KOREA 


equipped with hygienic laboratories, and no 
province is now lacking such institution. 

Important articles subjected to official inspec- 
tion during this fiscal year totaled 65,005, of 
which 55,302 were found satisfactory, while 
9,254 were declared injurious or unwholesome. 
Among the principal articles condemned were 
2,294 samples of patent medicines, 156 of liquors, 
4,046 of beverages, and 274 of containers. 


Bacteriological Service— 

Formerly, the country was troubled by the 
visitation of infectious diseases almost the whole 
year round, while no research work was ever car- 
ried on to ascertain the cause of them, but by 
1920 each of the provinces had within it a bac- 
teriological laboratory conducting tests, etc., 
with a view to cholera prevention. ‘The manufac- 
ture of the various preventive vaccines and se- 
rums, however, is conducted by the one in Keijo 
only, and from this laboratory a large number of 
phials of the several vaccines and serums has 
yearly been dispatched to the provinces at a small 
charge or else free of cost, and the demand for 
them is ever growing. 


Opium Control— 


From of old opium-smoking has been some- 
what prevalent in Chosen, especially in the fron- 
tier regions, and many were the victims of it 


MEDICAL, SANITARY, SOCIAL SERVICE 225 


throughout the country. So in the year 1905 the 
old Korean Government prohibited the importa- 
tion, manufacture, and sale of opium and pipes, 
and inserted a special provision for it in the penal 
code then published, but found it impossible to 
enforce it effectively. After the annexation the 
Government-General took every measure to 
make the control of opium as strict as possible, 
and the new criminal law for Chosen issued in 
March, 1912, also contained a particular pro- 
vision for it. Toward confirmed users of opium a 
rather moderate policy was taken at first, so that 
their cure might be effected by degrees, and their 
number gradually grew less. In September, 
1914, the Government gave instructions to the 
police and other officials concerned to enforce in 
future the absolute prohibition of opium-smok- 
ing, and, taught by past experience, treated 
habitués in a semi-compulsory manner. ‘This 
proved very effective, but it was still impossible 
to free the land of the evil as much opium was 
smuggled in from China, and in the frontier dis- 
tricts people secretly grew the poppy for making 
opium. 

As a consequence of the stricter enforcement 
of the law against opium-smoking, the use of 
morphine and of cocaine increased, and it became 
necessary to issue new regulations to insure a 
stricter control of druggists and of the illicit sale 
of drugs. In 1920 the whole question of opium 


226 THE NEW KOREA 


alkaloids and of other narcotics was reconsidered 
in view of Japan’s adherence to the International 
Opium Treaty. Regulations were issued cover- 
ing the import and export of all narcotic drugs, 
making them subject to Government sanction. 

The production of opium reached about 17,000 
pounds in 1919, fell in 1920 to 342 pounds, rose 
in 1921 to 5,900 pounds, fell in 1922 to 3,600 
pounds, and in 1928 to 3,060 pounds. 


Relief Work for Lepers— 


There is a good deal of leprosy in Korea, a 
condition to which the first relief was contributed 
by medical missionaries, the matter never having 
engaged the serious attention of the old Korean 
Government. 

After the establishment of the Government- 
General the prevalence of leprosy was the subject 
of a special inquiry which resulted, in 1916, in 
the selection of the island of Shoroku as a leper 
settlement where, in the course of time, all lepers 
in Korea were to be isolated for treatment. 

In 1924 the Shorokuto Charity Hospital had a 
staff of three doctors, thirteen nurses, and sixteen 
other employees. The patients are treated with 
chaulmugra oil and its ethyl ester. The average 
number of patients treated per day has increased 
from 76 in 1918 to 192 in 1921. 


MEDICAL, SANITARY, SOCIAL SERVICE 227 


Hospitals— 

There was in Korea in 1923 a total of 101 hos- 
pitals. Of these, twenty-five were Government 
hospitals, of which twenty-three were Provincial 
Charity Hospitals; nine were maintained by 
public bodies; forty-one private hospitals were 
maintained as private institutions by Japanese, 
seven by Koreans, and nineteen by foreigners, 
the last named being conducted by the various 
missionary societies. 

The largest hospitals are the Chosen Govern- 
ment Hospital and the Severance Union Hos- 
pital, both situated in Keijo. 

The Government-General decided in 1920 to 
make a considerable addition to the hospital 
equipment of the country, allotting to that pur- 
pose about three million dollars. This work will 
be completed in 1927, thus adding thirteen Pro- 
vincial Charity Hospitals, and two Branch Hos- 
pitals to those mentioned above, and fifty-two 
physicians to the medical personnel. 

In 1928 there were treated at the Chosen Gov- 
ernment Hospital a total of 101,749 in-patient 
cases. The figures do not refer to the number of 
individuals treated, but to the case-day; that is to 
say, a patient is counted as a separate case on 
each day he is in the hospital. Of the total num- 
ber of cases 95,168 were paying cases (68,245 
Japanese, and 26,923 Koreans ; and 6,581 were 
free cases (2,336 Japanese, and 4,245 Koreans). 


228 THE NEW KOREA 


The number of out-patients visiting the hos- 
pital in 1923 was 247,091, by case-day count. Of 
these 160,136 were paying cases (127,606 Japan- 
ese, and 32,530 Koreans) ; and 86,955 were free 
cases (2,866 Japanese, and 84,069 Koreans). 

The Provincial Charity Hospitals treated 
235,444 cases of in=patients in 1923, of which 
number 133,014 were paying cases, and 102,430 
free. The case-day figures for out-patients in 
these hospitals was 1,755,093, of which 901,561 
were paying cases, and 853,093 free. ‘These fig- 
ures refer to the number of dispensary treatments 
given, each treatment being counted as a case. 


The Severance Union Medical College— 


The following account. is taken from the Sev- 
erance Umon Medical College Catalogue, 1925-6. 


The College is the direct successor of the work 
established by Dr. H. N. Allen, the first Protestant 
missionary in Korea. He arrived in the country in 
1884; and in gratitude for his having saved the 
life of Prince Min, the King established the Royal 
Korean Hospital, appointing Dr. Allen in charge. 
The work was successively carried on by Drs. Allen, 
J. W. Heron, C. C. Vinton, and O. R. Avison. In 
1894 the work of the hospital was taken over from 
the Korean Government by the Northern Presby- 
terian Mission, and since then has been distinctly a 
missionary institution. 

The first regular medical class was enrolled in 
1900, and graduated in 1908. ‘The continued exis- 


MEDICAL, SANITARY, SOCIAL SERVICE 229 


tence of the College is due to the generosity of Mr. 
L. H. Severance, and of his son and daughter, Mr. 
John L. Severance, and Mrs. F. F. Prentiss, whose 
benefactions have exceeded $150,000. 

Severance Union Medical College is incorporated 
under the laws of the Government-General of Korea, 
the Board of Managers consisting of representatives 
of the Missions and of the Churches and of the 
Alumni. The school was recognized by the Educa- 
tional Department as a “Senmon Gakko” (which 
term corresponds to College) in May, 1917. And 
again in 1922 when the educational regulations were 
revised, the school was given recognition under the 
new ordinance, but graduates were still required to 
pass the government examination for license to 
practice medicine. However, in February, 1923, 
Governor-General Saito designated Severance Union 
Medical College as a school whose graduates from 
the regular course might be licensed without further 
examination, the government, through its Educa- 
tional Department taking cognizance of all the ex- 
aminations of the school. This gives the school full 
recognition under the government, and removes all 
handicaps. 

At present six missions are actively co-operating 
in the work of the College and Hospital: Presby- 
terian Church in the U. S. A.; Methodist Episcopal 
Church; Presbyterian Church in the U. S.; Methodist 
Episcopal Church, South; Presbyterian Church in 
Canada; Presbyterian Church of Australia. 


During the ten years ending with 1924 the 
number of out-patients treated during the year 


230 THE NEW KOREA 


in the college dispensary has increased from 
twenty-seven thousand to seventy-one thousand, 
and the number of in-patients from 1,387 to 
1,968. In the year 1924 the number of free cases 
in the hospital was 27.3 per cent of the total, or, 
counting days in hospital instead of number of 
patients, 43 per cent of the total case-day units. 
In the out-patient department 38.6 per cent of 
the treatments were free. 

The College and Hospital are hampered in the 
highly useful work they perform by the lack of 
funds to extend equipment and increase the staff. 
Certainly no one who has visited these institu- 
tions can retain any other impression than that 
they deserve the most generous support from 
those who have the means to afford it. 


Health Practitioners— 


All persons in Korea who are in any way con- 
nected with the practice of medicine are under 
strict police supervision; and the regulations in 
regard to physicians and surgeons who follow the 
Western methods are practically the same as 
those which are in force in Japan proper, with 
the exception that in remote districts where there 
are very few thoroughly qualified medical men, a 
license to practice is issued to persons who have 
not the full legal qualifications. 

The number of fully qualified doctors in Korea 
in 1923 was 1,202, of doctors with local licenses 


MEDICAL, SANITARY, SOCIAL SERVICE 231 


86, of doctors of the old Chinese school 5,188, of 
vaccinators 1,581, of veterinary-surgeons 373, 
and of patent-medicine vendors 27,923. ‘The last 
figure is of special interest because it shows an 
advance of 4,600 over the figure for 1918. 


Vital Statistics— 
The following table gives the official figures for 
five years on the matters named: 


Brrtus, Deatus, Marriaces, Divorces PER THOUSAND 
OF THE POPULATION 


1921 1922 


Live Births. . wan 
oreans 


Japanese 
Koreans 
Japanese 
Koreans 
Divorces.... Japanese 
Koreans 0.58 


Marriages... 





Social Service— 

At the time of the annexation of Korea, his 
late Majesty the Emperor Meiji of Japan au- 
thorized the setting aside of 30 million yen from 
the Imperial treasury for the benefit of his new 
Korean subjects. Of this sum, 17,398,000 yen 
was invested as a permanent fund and distributed 
among various provinces. ‘The interest, amount- 
ing to nearly 900,000 yen annually, is devoted to 
various forms of social service throughout the 
Peninsula. 


= - _ 


232 THE NEW KOREA 


The work supported by the interest on the Im- 
perial Donation Funds is divided into three 
classes—affording a means of livelihood to the 
poor, education, and the relief of sufferers from 
flood and drought. | 

The first branch undertakes work of a fairly 
wide scope, including the employment of itin- 
erant teachers who give instruction in sericulture, 
in the making of textiles, paper, and charcoal, 
and in fishery. Some portion of the revenue is 
used to supply implements needed in agriculture, 
sericulture, forest industries, stock-farming, and 
fishing, and to carry out other social services. 

The second branch pays subsidies in the coun- 
try districts for the encouragement of common- 
school education. : 

The third branch affords assistance to calam- 
ity-stricken people by supplying them with food- 
stuffs, seeds, agricultural implements, building 
materials, and soon. When this kind of relief is 
not required, the amount allotted to it in the local 
budgets is allowed to accumulate for future use. 

A further Imperial donation was made in 1912 
on the demise of the Emperor Meiji, to the 
amount of 200,000 yen; a third, of 115,000 yen in 
the following year, on the occasion of the death 
of the Dowager Empress Shoken; and a fourth, 
of 200,000 yen at the time of the Imperial Coro- 
nation in 1915. These funds are in charge of the 
Government-General, and the annual interest is 


MEDICAL, SANITARY, SOCIAL SERVICE 233 


distributed from time to time for relief work in 
such districts as require it. 

In addition to the foregoing, each public body 
engages in social relief work, drawing the neces- 
sary funds from its own treasury. ‘The principal 
expenditure is incurred in respect of free medical » 
treatment for the poor, the establishment of 
public markets under the management of prefec- 
tural or village authorities, the erection of lodg- 
ing houses for laborers and for the unemployed, 
the maintenance of free public baths, advisory 
offices, and official pawnshops. 

These arrangements are designed to meet the 
demands of what may be called ordinary public 
benevolences. Occasionally, however, the coun- 
try is visited by some wide-spread calamity, when 
it becomes necessary for the Government to take 
special measures of relief. 

A notable instance of this was the disastrous 
drought, of almost unprecedented severity, which 
occurred in 1919. On this occasion the prompt 
action of the Government prevented the loss of 
a single life from starvation. The relief meas- 
ures involved a total expenditure by the Govern- 
ment of ten million yen, which was disbursed as 
follows: for the purchase and distribution of 
food, four million yen; for loans to sufferers, 
3,600,000 yen; for public engineering works to 
absorb unemployed labor 2,400,000 yen. 

The principal social service institutions under 


234 THE NEW KOREA 


the direct management of the Government- 
General are: 

(1) A Charity Asylum in Seoul (Keijo) to 
which is attached land to the extent of about 325 
acres. The Asylum is divided into two sections, 
one being concerned with the care and nurture of 
orphans, the other with the training of the blind 
and of deaf-mutes. 

The orphans who complete the common-school 
course in the Asylum, and are of suitable phys- 
ical condition, are as a rule trained as farmers at 
the Asylum farm. In order to encourage them 
to work and to provide them with a small fund to 
start life on when they leave the institution, the 
children are given an. allowance based on the 
kind of work they have been doing, the time 
spent at it, the value of the product, and the 
record of general conduct. In 1921 the average 
per capita allowance was 37.63 yen. 

The blind are usually trained as masseurs, and 
the deaf-mutes are taught needle-work. 

(2) A Government Reformatory at Eiko, 
near Gensan on the east coast. This was opened 
in October 1928, with an annual budget of about 
35,000 yen. It is called the Eiko School, in order 
to avoid the unfavorable impression produced by 
the word “reformatory.” ‘The school had sixty- 
five juvenile delinquents in 1925. Nothing is left 
undone for their moral, intellectual, and physical 
development, efforts being made to train them in 


MEDICAL, SANITARY, SOCIAL SERVICE 235 


some manual work, so that they may be capable 
of earning a livelihood when discharged. 

(3) The hospital for lepers, at Shorokuto. 
This is referred to on page 226 of this volume. 

The expenditure incurred in 1925 in respect of 
these institutions was: for the Charity Asylum 
88,899 yen, for the Reformatory 35,571 yen, for 
the Leper Hospital 54,489 yen. In addition to 
this direct outlay the Government-General 
granted subsidies from the State treasury, as fol- 
lows: for general social service thirty-four thou- 
sand yen, for the protection of ex-convicts ten 
thousand yen; for private leper hospitals 36,400 
yen. 

A great deal of social service is being done 
(and has for many years been done) by various 
religious and philanthropic persons and institu- 
tions. Of these private undertakings, most of 
which receive grants-in-aid from the Govern- 
ment-General there were at the beginning of 
1922 a total number of ninety-six. ‘These insti- 
tutions or associations were of the following 
classes: hospitals giving medical treatment free 
of charge 18, hospitals giving medical treatment 
at cost price 2, school for the blind and for deaf- 
mutes 1, for the relief of the families of dead 
soldiers 1, laborers’ lodging house 1, association 
for social investigations 1, for the relief of or- 
phans and indigent children 14, for the relief of 
calamity-stricken people 1, for the relief of way- 


236 THE NEW KOREA 


faring sick and dying 11, for encouraging social 
service 1, advisory office 1, general relief of the 
poor 17, for the care and treatment of lepers 3, 
for the protection and assistance of ex-convicts 
23, mutual aid society 1. 

Of the foregoing the majority are maintained 
by Christians of various nationalities—J apanese, 
American, Australian, Einglish, French, and 
Canadian. It is estimated that the amount of 
money contributed yearly by the supporters of 
these various undertakings exceeds 250,000 U. S. 
dollars. This, however, is in addition to an im- 
mense amount of unpaid service rendered by 
missionaries and others. 


CHAPTER XI 


THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF 
KOREA 


I. AGRICULTURE 
Historical— 


When, in 1910, the Japanese Government de- 
cided to annex Korea, it had no military prob- 
lem to face. The Koreans had indeed an honor- 
able military tradition; but it referred back to a 
period in the remote past, and under the Yi 
Dynasty Korea had followed the example of 
China and become profoundly pacifist. 

Japan’s immediate necessity at the time of an- 
nexation was to formulate a Korean policy of 
which the effect would be to insure a peaceful 
acceptance of their rule and to accustom the 
Korean people to the idea that a more happy and 
prosperous Korea was to be expected from a 
modernized Japanese administration than could 
have been hoped for from the continuance of the 
native system of self-government, which so far as 
the mass of the people was concerned was purely 
chimerical, and had in fact degenerated into a 
cruel and unscrupulous exploitation of the masses 
by the classes. 

237 


238 THE NEW KOREA 


The period of the Japanese Residency-Gen- 
eral, 1905-1910—the period of the Protectorate, 
as it is sometimes called—was an intermediate 
stage between purely native rule and purely 
Japanese rule. It was characterized by admin- 
istrative confusion and by all the half-way meas- 
ures which are inseparable from an attempt to 
govern by the method of condominium. 

The natural tendency of the more powerful 
and advanced partner in such arrangements is to 
force the pace of reform; the equally natural 
tendency of the weaker and, administratively, 
backward partner is to retard it. The inevitable 
consequence is to frustrate the efforts of the re- 
formers and to develop a spirit of mutual opposi- 
tion injurious to every interest in the country. 

The broad features of the policy adopted by 
Japan when, at the time of annexation, she as- 
sumed full control and responsibility in the 
Peninsula, were simple and, in my opinion, well 
conceived. What the country had suffered most 
from, what had reduced an intelligent and ami- 
able people to a very low economic status and had 
made them apathetic toward their own plight, 
were administrative inefficiency and corruption, 
a debased currency, the insecurity of property 
rights, defective civil law, and a venal magis- 
tracy. Japan determined to change these condi- 
tions. Her efforts in the domains of law, order, 
and civil administration are described elsewhere 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 239 


in this volume. My present concern is with her 
economic policy. 

Japanese statesmen were far too well informed 
to expect that their economic policy in Korea, 
whatever form it might take, would be immune 
from criticism either by Koreans or by foreign 
observers. If the Japanese settled in the Penin- 
sula, invested capital there, stimulated commerce, 
industry, and agriculture, built schools, roads, 
hospitals, docks, and railroads, established law 
courts, banks and other credit agencies, agricul- 
tural, industrial, and other research institutions 
—thus adding enormously to the tangible assets 
of the country and contributing to the health, 
comfort, and prosperity of its inhabitants—criti- 
cism would address itself to charging the Japan- 
ese with exploiting the country for their own ad- 
vantage. 

If, on the other hand, the Japanese adopted 
another policy; if they refrained from an invest- 
ment in its development, left things much as they 
were under native rule, and contented themselves 
with turning the Peninsula into an effective 
strategic frontier, the charge would be made that 
the Japanese interest In Korea went no further 
than carrying out the military plans of the Gen- 
eral Staff, and that Japanese statesmen were 
utterly indifferent to the welfare of the Koreans. 

Even a superficial knowledge of the history of 
British, American, French, and Dutch colonial 


240 THE NEW KOREA 


dependencies would suffice to supply instances of 
the types of criticism to which I have alluded 
above. 

Since the annexation of Korea was, from the 
standpoint of Japanese national policy, abso- 
lutely irrevocable, Japan determined to center 
its Korean policy around the development of the 
economic resources of the country. From the 
improvement in the general living conditions of 
the Koreans which such a course must inevitably 
produce it was to be expected, not indeed that 
opposition to the Japanese occupation would dis- 
appear, but certainly that the passage of time 
would provide convincing evidence of material 
advantages, of increased educational opportuni- 
ties, of a broadening social horizon, which the 
Koreans would recognize as something to be set in 
the scales of judgment to weigh against the sin- 
gle fact of the loss of their political independence. 

Of the total population of Korea about 82 per 
cent—in round numbers, 14,500,000—are de- 
pendent directly upon agriculture for their liveli- 
hood. The latest available figures, those for 
January, 1924, show the following classification 
of the agricultural population: Koreans, 14,329,- 
401; Japanese, 38,850; Chinese, 5,378; other 
foreigners, 17. The number of families engaged 
in agriculture was 2,702,838. Of these families 
1,123,275 were tenant-farmers, 951,667 owned 
land and occupied other land as tenants; and 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 241 


627,896 cultivated their own land without renting 
other land. 

The average area of cultivated land per family 
increased from 2.59 acres in 1910 to 3.92 acres 
in 1923, whilst the total area under cultivation 
increased during the same period from 6,039,014 
acres to 10,586,117. 

The following table shows the area harvested 
in 1912 and in 1923. When two crops were 
raised in the same year on the same land the area 
of each crop is included. The figures are, there- 
fore, considerably higher than those for the area 
under cultivation, since some areas produced two 
or more crops. 


AREA HARVESTED TO Various CROPS 
(In cho. 1 cho=2.45 acres) 


1912 1923 

RRIOR Seas tremigwe ec RNS hale os 3 Le 1,417,174 1,550,399 
BIAVIOV ew ar ies Aa ei Ne ees 622,392 813,145 
ME HORGsurichi sock cha taa utente dG 267,422 356,269 
Naked Dare yiis. gions chit wd awee 45,359 55,178 
Beans er ae Pe Cn tre stats 841,349 1,525,860 
Italian Millet and Maize.......... 634,954 874,517 
OatHeee We POLI EUe cto Sr Cane ele 53,817 117,312 
Butkwhest see ees oe eas 70,933* 102,640 
True, and Great Millet............ 92,531 114,912 
Deccan: Grass ie ik Oo oeniee ee eek 114,114 114,692 
Cotton Se Mecano eS Lhe 64,565 158,879 
BG ticles © cir tohee beatae oes iets 21,406 30,743 
ORANGE ee ele Bh ee aT Meee Eels 12,726 22,943 
Vewetables circ oe eat ing 87,238 199,035 
Manure Crops. G0 Us cigs te cele a tetas 1,682* 31,316 
Paper: Milberryur tn cir ws ciate: Maken ae pause ys 4,992 
Mores Hush A ieiatond ao oe ode Ric 1,909 3,227 

4,349,571 6,076,099 





* Figures for 1913. 


242 THE NEW KOREA 


The foregoing table omits reference to the area 
under the silk mulberry, which is dealt with in the 
section on sericulture, and to the areas under 
tobacco and ginseng, which are government 
monopolies and are dealt with under that head 
in the chapter on financial administration. 

The table showing the area under cultivation 
calls for little comment. ‘The large increase in 
the area under cotton indicates the success of the 
experiments conducted by the Government- 
General in the cultivation of that staple from 
American cotton seed. The twenty-fold increase 
in the cultivation of green manure crops reflects 
the educational work of the Government’s agri- 
cultural experts. 


Yield of Principal Crops— 


Rice, barley, naked barley, beans, Italian mil- 
let, maize, and wheat, taken together, account 
for about 83 per cent of the total area cultivated 
each year. The yield of these staples during 
twelve years is given in the following table. The 
exact equivalent of the kokw is 4.9629 bushels. 
As the table omits quantities less than a thousand 
bushels, the rate of five bushels to the koku gives 
a close approximation to the actual quantities. 

Owing to the introduction of improved species 
of grain and to the adoption, under the guidance 
of Japanese experts, of improved methods of 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 2438 


YIELD OF PRINCIPAL CROPS 
(In thousands of koku. 1 koku=5 bushels) 


Italian 
Year| Rice Barley Beans Millet- | Wheat saith 

Maize aeeet 
1912 10,865 5,856 4,733 4,254 1,565 312 
1913 12,109 6,717 4;824 5,056 1,809 348 
1914 14,130 6,170 4,891 4,517 1,629 299 
1915 | 12,846 6,793 5,224 4,878 1,690 344 
1916 13,933 6,537 5,536 5,396 1,770 302 
1917 13,687 6,931 5,690 5,766 1,788 389 
1918 | 15,294 7,728 6,521 6,277 1,993 417 
1919 | 12,708 7,270 3,891 4,207 1,670 361 
1920 14,882 7,366 6,256 6,662 2,145 348 
1921 14,324 7,615 5,979 6,483 2,170 394 
1922 15,014 6,820 5,636 5,700 2,057 357 
1923 15,175 6,031 5,855 5,841 1,680 346 


cultivation a steady increase is to be observed in 
the yield per acre of most of the crops. 


Value of Agricultural Products— 


As in other countries so in Korea the value of 
agricultural products varies greatly from year 
to year in sympathy with the world-market. 
Thus, in the absence of any important change in 
the quantity of production, the total value of 
Korean agricultural crops increased by 100 per 
cent between 1917 and 1920, and decreased by 
18 per cent between 1920 and 1923. The esti- 
mated total value of Korean agricultural prod- 
ucts during the fourteen years following annexa- 
tion is given in the following table: 


244 THE NEW KOREA 


Estrmmatep VALUE oF AGRICULTURAL PropucTs 
(In thousands of yen. 1 yen=50 cents U. S.) 





In 1923 the total value of agricultural prod- 
ucts was distributed as follows, by percentage: 
rice 34.3; cattle and other stock 16.2; straw prod- 
ucts 10.0; Italian millet, and maize 8.0; beans 
7.1; wheat, barley, and naked barley 6.3; vege- 
tables 5.9; all other products 12.2. 


Sericulture— 

The conditions of soil, climate, and labor com- 
bine to make Korea a favorable field for sericul- 
ture. ‘This industry has existed for many years 
in the country; but prior to the establishment of 
the Government-General little attention had 
been paid to the quality of the silk-worm eggs or 
to the proper cultivation of the mulberry planta- 
tions. In recent years the Government experts 
have done much to advance the interests of this 
industry, by introducing superior species of eggs, 
by distributing mulberry seedlings, by giving 
instruction in the care of silk-worms, the killing 
of pupae, the drying of cocoons, and so on. 

The most recent steps taken in this direction 
were the establishment of sericultural control 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA = 245 


stations and of silk-worm egg-sheet preparation 
stations in each province, and the promulgation of 
regulations relating to the prevention of diseases, 
the inspection of egg-sheets, the attainment of 
uniformity of product, and other matters vital 
to the success of the silk industry. 

In 1910 the number of families engaged in 
sericulture was about 76,000, producing approxi- 
mately 70,000 bushels of cocoons; in 1921, 312,000 
families were so engaged, and their product 
amounted to nearly 700,000 bushels of cocoons. 

The area under silk mulberry trees has in- 
creased from 8,190 acres in 1910 to 78,226 acres 
in 1923. During this period the yield of cocoons 
increased from 69,650 bushels to 1,038,560 
bushels, whilst the number of families engaged 
in the industry rose from 76,000 in 1910 to 
312,000 in 1921, and to 401,563 in 1928. 

The value of sericultural products has varied 
greatly from year to year with the ups and downs 
of the silk market, as disclosed in the following 
table: 


VALUE OF SERICULTURAL PRopUCcTS 
(In thousands of yen. 1 yen=50 cents U. S.) 


MDT ais ane leksiele eles 467 DOD Tic ines utara tahe are 8,717 
LOD yb iets chia 1,205 BOTS act wa’s a, ats 13,052 
LOTS ia owse sealed 1,877 LOTS estates cart ste 15,605 
LOIS Je daisy a5 st 2,600 DOO sata kic: takes 11,274 
TOL S. eee aN ec os 2,954 EEE Reais h aia ths 10,653 
BYE enorme ela ieee t 3,188 ROPE Wales tes oa ere 17,008 





246 THE NEW KOREA 


Land Tenure— 

In the official statistics the term “landlord” 
means a person who owns land and works it by 
the labor of others; the term “‘peasant-propri- 
etor’” a person who owns land and works it 
wholly or in part by his own labor; a “‘peasant- 
proprietor and tenant,” a person who in addition 
to working the land he owns, works other land 
for which he pays rent to a landowner; and the 
term “tenant,” a person who, having no land of 
his own, cultivates rented land only. But in this 
volume classes one and two are grouped together 
as “landowners,” the third is called “landowner 
and tenant,” the fourth “tenant-farmer.” 

At the beginning of 1924 there were in Korea 
627,896 landowners, 951,667 landowners and 
tenants, and 1,123,275 tenant-farmers. The 
definitions refer to households, not to individuals. 
The figures show that of a total of 2,702,838 
farming households, 1,579,563 owned the whole 
or part of the land they cultivated, and 1,123,275 
owned no land. That is to say, more than 58 per 
cent of the families engaged in agriculture owned 
land, and most of these also rented land and culti- 
vated it. 

One of the early acts of the Government- 
General was to issue an order designed to pre- 
vent the formation of large landed estates by the 
amalgamation of small estates and the gradual 
squeezing out of the peasant proprietor. 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 247 


This order worked on the principle of restrain- 
ing the acquisitiveness of those above. It was 
supplemented later by two measures designed to 
assist those in humbler circumstances. One of 
these was to rent uncultivated State land on easy 
terms, and when their reclamation had been 
effected, to transfer them gratis to the culti- 
vators. The other was to assist tenants occupy- 
ing cultivated State lands to acquire ownership 
of them by allowing the purchase price to be paid 
in ten annual instalments. 

The Government-General has, however, found 
it difficult to cultivate a sense of ownership 
among the tenants. They are inclined to regard 
the sum charged in addition to the rent of the 
State lands as a “squeeze,”’ and cannot envisage 
it as an instalment method of paying for land 
which will ultimately become their own property, 
thus eventually extinguishing the annual rent 
charge. 

The prevailing system of tenant-farming rests 
upon leases for limited periods, perpetual leases 
being of very rare occurrence. The leases fall 
into three classes: (1) those in which a fixed rent 
is agreed upon, regardless of the harvest ob- 
tained; (2) those in which the rent is fixed ac- 
cording to the estimate of the standing crop made 
by the landlord, or by his agent, in the presence 
of the tenant (this system favors the landlord, 
since his own estimate of the expected crop be- 


248 THE NEW KOREA 


comes the basis of the rental, and its adoption is 
increasing) ; (8) those in which the landlord and 
the tenant each take half of the crop. 

The tenancy contracts are made each year be- 
tween the completion of the harvest and the 
spring following. Landlords are free to change 
their tenants at any time other than that which 
lies between the planting of the crop and its har- 
vesting. The usual practice is to allow the leases 
to run on unless slovenly farming or accumulated 
arrears of rent afford reasonable grounds for a 
change. 

Korean landlords prefer for the most part to 
live in the towns, and as a rule they are repre- 
sented on their rural properties by agents called 
Sah-om. As in other countries the difference be- 
tween a contented and prosperous tenant and his 
opposite often depends on the character of the 
agent; and in Korea as elsewhere these rural 
agents often yield to those temptations which are 
presented by their position of authority and by 
the comparative helplessness of the tenants. 

Farm rents are as arule paid in kind. In cases 
where the landlord demands cash payments or 
where the tenant prefers that method, as he may 
well do if the delivery in kind involves too long a 
journey, the custom is for the produce to be val- 
ued at current market prices, and the amount 
thus determined represents the cash rental. 

Rents vary greatly according to the kind of 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 249 


contract entered into and with reference to the 
quality of the land. Fixed rents vary between 
35 and 50 per cent of the value of the average 
harvest, but they are lower than this in upland 
(dry) areas. Rent according to yield ranges 
between 30 and 70 per cent of the estimated value 
of the crop. Where the contract is on the basis 
of halving the crop, an actual division of the 
produce usually occurs; but this method is modi- 
fied in practice by agreement between the land- 
lord and the tenant as to who pays the land tax, 
who pays the cost of seed, and other matters. 

Local Korean custom provides for a reduction 
in the contract rent—in cases where the rent is 
based on the yield of the harvest—when the har- 
vest falls to 50 per cent or lower of the average 
yield. It is the common practice to reduce the 
rent part passu with the reduction of the crop 
below the average; but if the crop goes below 30 
per cent of the average the rent is entirely re- 
mitted. 


Financing the Farmer— 


Twenty years ago almost every phase of the 
agricultural industry was unsatisfactory. Culti- 
vation was of the crudest, the application to the 
soil of manure or of chemical fertilizers was as to 
the former insufficient, as to the latter almost 
unknown. Farming implements were of a primi- 


250 THE NEW KOREA 


tive kind, and were in many instances borrowed 
from the landlord. 

In such circumstances the principal need felt 
by the farmer for credit was for ready money 
with which to purchase cattle and other stock. 
For such sums as the farmers were compelled to 
borrow a very high rate of interest was usually 
demanded. 

During the period of the Japanese Protec- 
torate, 1906-1910, the Korean Government was 
urged by its Japanese advisers to encourage 
agriculture by establishing People’s Banking 
Associations, and by taking other steps to supply 
money at reasonable rates to agriculturalists. A 
beginning was made, but it was not until after 
the annexation that any considerable extension 
of agricultural credit occurred. 

The extent to which agricultural credit has 
been developed since the annexation is disclosed 
by the figures showing the volume of outstanding 
agricultural loans at the end of 1912 and at the 
end of 1928. In the former year the sum was 
under five million yen, in the latter it exceeded 
134 million. 

It is to be noted that this immense increase in 
agricultural loans does not represent merely a 
financing of the crops. A very large proportion 
of the money borrowed is spent on the construc- 
tion of irrigation works, on the reclamation of 
waste lands, on the improvement of arable land, 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 251 


and soon. In fact the greater proportion of the 
loans has been devoted to such purposes, repre- 
senting a revenue-producing investment. 


Official Encouragement of Agriculture— 


Since the whole economic structure of Korea 
rests upon the foundation of agriculture, the im- 
provement of agricultural conditions became, 
naturally, a matter of earnest solicitude for the 
Government-General. 

The Japanese administration in Korea, being 
well acquainted with the highly intensive agri- 
culture of Japan, found very broad opportunities 
for betterment in the comparatively poor agri- 
cultural methods of the Koreans. 

I am indebted to Mr. T. Hoshino’s excellent 
Economic History of Chosen for the following 
summary of the steps taken by the Government- 
General to further the agricultural interests of 
the country. 

The principal physical conditions of Korea are 
much the same as those of Japan, being both 
prominently mountainous, and having other 
characteristics in common. Korea has a large 
population, though not half as dense as that of 
Japan; but it is rapidly increasing with the 
increasing security of life and property. 

A striking feature of Korean agriculture was 
the extreme extent to which the system of local 
self-supply was carried. Thus the farmers in 


252 THE NEW KOREA 


the north of the country used to produce suffi- 
cient cotton for their needs, although the south 
was much better suited to that crop. The diffi- 
culties of transportation may have furnished a 
good reason for this in the past; but the extension 
of roads and railways during recent years has 
removed every justification for this uneconomic 
cropping. 

The first and most important step taken by the 
Japanese to improve the husbandry of the 
Koreans was the establishment of model farms. 
Of these the largest is that situated near Suwon, 
about twenty-five miles from Keijo, the capital 
city. It has branches in different parts of the 
country; and is officered by a competent staff of 
Japanese and Korean experts, who occupy them- 
selves with agricultural experiments, with the 
study of plant biology, and with educational 
work in all matters relating to agriculture. 

The Suwon Model Farm was established in 
1906, under the Japanese Residency-General. 
At the time, an ineffective Korean school of agri- 
culture, commerce, and industry existed in Keijo 
(Seoul). This was abolished, and an Agricul- 
tural and Forestry School was attached to the 
newly created Suwon Model Farm. 

In order to help forward the work of the model 
farms, seedling stations were established in vari- 
ous parts of the country. The principal function 
of these stations is to make a local study of the 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA = 258 


soil, and to distribute seeds and seedlings. In 
addition to this, members of the staffs instruct 
the farmers in the use of improved agricultural 
implements, in the introduction of new species of 
crops, in the utilization of waste lands, and in 
home industries such as the making of matting 
and other simple commodities for which local 
resources furnish the raw materials. 

The work of the institutions mentioned above 
is supplemented by the employment of agricul- 
tural experts to travel about the country and 
deliver lectures. 

The Government-General has done much to 
encourage the formation of agricultural associa- 
tions throughout the country. ‘There are at the 
present time nearly six hundred of such associa- 
tions, with a total membership of about three 
million. In Keijo, the capital city, is the central 
one, called the Chosen Agricultural Association, 
which has a membership, including its suburban 
branches, of more than three thousand persons. 
Its principal functions are to publish books on 
agriculture, to answer questions submitted to it, 
to arrange public lectures and competitive exhibi- 
tions, and to grow and distribute seeds. It re- 
ceives an annual subsidy from the Government- 
General. 

Another important measure undertaken by the 
authorities was the investigation and regulation 
of the water supply for irrigation. In former 


254 THE NEW KOREA 


times the Koreans had made considerable use of 
irrigation by drawing water from ponds and 
erecting dams across the streams and innumer- 
able ponds and dams were made throughout the 
Peninsula. But under the blighting influence of 
the Yi Dynasty most of these works had been 
neglected to the point where they were almost 
useless. 

An investigation made in 1908, at the instance 
of the Japanese Resident-General, showed that 
such ponds and dams numbered 6,300 and 20,700, 
respectively. It was found, however, that only 
410 dams and 1,527 ponds were worth restora- 
tion. ‘The Government, therefore, drew up a 
plan to encourage the people to repair these. It 
gave aid, in the form of subsidies; and by the end 
of 1918 all had been satisfactorily restored. 


Irrigation— 


For the purpose of establishing irrigation 
works on a large scale the authorities encourage 
the people to organize Water-Utilization Asso- 
ciations. In the Annual Report on Reforms and 
Progress in Chosen for the fiscal year 1921-22 
the matter of irrigation is thus dealt with: 


The regulations relating to water-utilization asso- 
ciations were promulgated during the protectorate 
régime, but their stipulations were too simple, and 
they were soon found to be quite unsuited to the 
progress of the times, so in July, 1917, new regula- 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA = 255 


tions were promulgated. It was found, however, that 
the farmers in general hesitated to shoulder the 
responsibility of engaging experts to make inves- 
tigation, so regulations relating to subsidies to be 
granted to water-utilization associations were promul- 
gated in 1919, whereby it was possible for any area 
of over 200 cho (about 500 acres) to be investigated 
by the Government-General on application being 
made by provincial governors, promoters of water- 
utilization associations, or by the associations them- 
selves, and to grant a subsidy, not exceeding 15 per 
cent of the cost, to works covering (a minimum of) 
200 chobu * and exceeding 40,000 yen in cost. 

Later on, following on the framing of the scheme 
for effecting increase in the rice crop in December, 
1920, regulations relating to subsidies for land im- 
provement works were promulgated, by virtue of 
which even private undertakings were favored with 
subsidies varying from 25 to 30 per cent of the 
cost according to the kind of work to be done, and 
at the end of this fiscal year the number of associa- 
tions actually in working order was 29, operating 
over an area of 40,600 chobu, while 21 other associa- 
tions were actively engaged in preparatory or con- 
struction works designed to serve an area of over 
26,100 chobu, the total expenditure on all these en- 
terprises already amounting to over 31,000,000 yen. 
There still remain 80 tracts of land awaiting im- 
provement, covering an area of 130,000 chobu. 


In 1920 the Government-General drew up a pro- 
gramme to be executed in fifteen years from that 


* A Chobu (sometimes written cho) is 2.45 acres. 


256 THE NEW KOREA 


year, and work on it is well under way. This aims 
at the improvement of at least one-half of the total 
area of uncultivated lands amounting to 800,000 
chobu. Among other things the most important is 
the basic investigation relating to those lands to be 
improved or reclaimed, whereby the locality and area 
of the lands, method to be followed, and the estimated 
cost can be properly determined. In pursuance of 
this, special experts have been sent to the provinces 
since 1920, and the area actually explored by them 
up to the end of this fiscal year is over 3,534,000 
chobu. 

Irrigation appeals to the common interest of agri- 
culturists and visibly illustrates the facilities afforded 
by water-utilization associations, so the Government 
is encouraging their formation while recognizing 
private undertakings. Since these works affect people 
in various ways, however, it is provided that official 
permission for such must be obtained, and the number 
so far granted is 117, covering an area of over 9,600 
chobu. 


Agricultural Labor— 

Agriculture in Korea is carried on chiefly by 
hand labor with the assistance of cattle, mechan- 
ical appliances being, as yet, little employed. 
Farm labor is usually self-supplied, that is to say 
it is provided by the farmer and his family. Un- 
like Japan, where women furnish much of the 
field work, the Korean custom has always been 
that the women do nothing but indoor work; 
although in recent years the women in some parts 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 257 


of the country are beginning to help their men 
in the fields. 

Daily-wage labor is little employed, except by 
Japanese farmers. The number of these is, how- 
ever, small, amounting to about 140,000 families 
in the whole country. Apart from the labor of 
the farmer and his family, three sources of labor- 
supply are available: 


(1) Farm hands are engaged for fixed 
periods, ranging usually between one and three 
years, though extending occasionally to five 
years. During the period agreed upon the farm 
hands are treated as members of the family, and 
are provided with food, lodging and clothing, 
and an annual money allowance of from 50 to 
100 yen, according to circumstances. 

(2) Another system is that of Koji, or 
contract-labor. ‘This is in the nature of a labor- 
tenancy. The tenants contract to supply the 
necessary farm labor for a certain fixed area. 
They live rent-free, and are paid, in advance, at 
rates varying between 10 and 15 yen per tan 
(about a quarter of an acre) for the area they 
have contracted to cultivate, though, both in 
respect of the amount and of the method of pay- 
ment, the custom varies. 

(3) In the southern part of Korea there are 
farmers’ unions—called Nosha or T'uh-re, whose 
purpose is to render mutual joint aid in times of 


258 THE NEW KOREA 


emergency, such as flood, when a large number 
of laborers is suddenly called for. 


The usual terms on which the unions furnish 
labor in such circumstances are that the farmer 
benefiting by it shall supply the men with food, 
sake, and tobacco during the time they are work- 
ing, and pay from ten to fifteen cents per man on 
each occasion on which the unions furnish such 
labor. 

Broadly speaking the six months from June to 
November make up the hardest season for agri- 
cultural labor, the other six months being occu- 
pied with work of a lighter character. The dis- 
tribution of work throughout the year is as fol- 
lows: 

January, gathering domestic fuel, manuring 
the autumn-sown wheat fields, straw-work; 
February, more or less a holiday month asso- 
ciated with the celebration of the Chinese New 
Year; March, gathering domestic fuel, transport- 
ing manure, sowing spring wheat; April, weed- 
ing wheat fields, transporting manure, preparing 
rice beds, sowing vegetable seeds; May, sowing 
rice beds, tilling the paddy (young rice) fields, 
gathering grass and other green manure crops; 
June, transplanting rice shoots, harvesting the 
autumn-sown wheat, sowing beans and peas; 
July, transplanting rice shoots, weeding, gather- 
ing domestic fuel; August, weeding and other 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 259 


cultivation, gathering domestic fuel, sowing 
vegetable seeds for the autumn crop; September, 
gathering domestic fuel, and thinning out vege- 
tables; October, sowing autumn wheat, harvest- 
ing rice; November, harvesting rice, gathering 
and pickling vegetables, delivery of rent in kind; 
December, manuring wheat fields, thatching, 
gathering domestic fuel. 

The large amount of time devoted to gather- 
ing domestic fuel is explained by the circum- 
stance that Korea, like China, has, through the 
total neglect in former times of every measure 
for forest conservation, been denuded of nearly 
the whole of its timber. This subject is dealt 
with, under the head Forestry, in the following 
chapter. 


CHAPTER XII 
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 


II. Forestry, Fisoinc AND MINING 


Forestry 
HMistorical— 


Most of the following data are taken from the 
Annual Report on Administration of Chosen, 
1922-23, 

For many years the forests in the country were 
left untended and unprotected, consequently 
checking the progress of various kinds of indus- 
try, so the Government-General took the matter 
in hand by making investigation from 1911 on- 
ward of the State forests offering legal difficul- 
ties, by charging local offices with the investiga- 
tion of forests possessed by private persons, by 
appointing forestry experts and stationing them 
in various places to give the people practical 
guidance in forestry, by leasing State forest 
lands denuded of trees to those making applica- 
tion under condition of afforesting them (which 
done, permanent possession is often granted 
gratis), by giving seedlings to those localities too 
poor to buy them, by putting a limit on the age, 

260 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 261 


height, and spread of trees to be felled in order to 
protect immature forests, and by subsidizing the 
extermination of noxious insects. ‘These meas- 
ures have not only resulted in the condition of 
forests undergoing an entire transformation com- 
pared with that at the time of annexation, but 
have also induced in the people in general a love 
of arboriculture, thus contributing greatly to the 
rise of afforestation undertakings among them. 
For the purpose of providing models for affores- 
tation and of cultivating the local resources, the 
Government-General has caused provinces and 
myen to lay out forests, granting them the neces- 
sary land, and also made provision for school 
forests by giving or leasing land gratis for the 
purpose. Officials and private persons are also 
encouraged to plant commemoration trees on the 
third of April, anniversary of Emperor Jimmu, 
every year, and every other opportunity is seized 
to encourage the people to effect improvement in 
forestry. 

A close and exact examination being necessary 
for the drawing up of plans for the future, the 
forestry-investigating work was expanded, and 
more specialists were engaged in 1921 to conduct 
scientific investigation as to the planting, protec- 
tion, and utilization of forests. In a suburb of 
Seoul an experimental forestry station was estab- 
lished this year to take charge of the work. 

Before annexation there were no written laws 


262 THE NEW KOREA 


worthy of the name relating to forestry adminis- 
tration, save that the felling of trees was pro- 
hibited, and even this was more honored in the 
breach than in the observance toward the latter 
years of the Yi dynasty, bringing in its train 
indiscriminate and secret felling, so that destruc- 
tion of forests went to the extreme. Guided by 
the Resident-General, the Korean Government 
promulgated a Forestry Law and regulations, 
and these were adopted as they stood by the Gov- 
ernment-General, but revision being necessary 
on account of the lamentable condition of the for- 
ests and the progress of the times, new regula- 
tions were promulgated in June, 1911, and in 
1912 regulations concerning State and private 
forests were drawn up, and experts attached to 
central and local offices. 

State forest lands leased to the people covered 
an area of about 1,837,000 acres in the year 1921 
and about 2,033,000 acres at the end of the fiscal 
year, 1922-23. 


Condition of the Forests— 


The total area of forest lands in Chosen 
amounts to about 39 million acres, or 71 per cent 
of the total area of the Peninsula, but, as they 
have long been neglected, the area of standing 
forests is estimated at about 18,500,000 acres 
only, and those are mostly found in the remote 
north and in the eastern highlands. Of the re- 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 268 


maining area, about 18 million acres are covered 
with young trees and about 7,500,000 acres are 
entirely bare. Even the lands covered with trees 
show no signs of developing into good forests 
owing to lack of care and management, yet not 
only is the demand for material for building and 
fuel growing greater year by year, but the de- 
mand for railway sleepers, telegraph poles, 
bridge beams, piles used in mining, and wood- 
pulp is increasing, so the Government is doing its 
utmost to prevent too great and too indis- 
criminate a felling of trees, while at the same 
time pursuing measures to secure their protection 
and the planting of seedlings to replace the trees 
felled. 

As the north and south of the Peninsula differ 
widely in climate, many varieties of trees are 
present. In the basins of the Oryoku and 'Tumen 
in the north, and on the higher mountains, the fir, 
larch, Korean pine, birch, etc., are found, and in 
the central and upper southern part the Japanese 
red and black pine, deciduous and evergreen oak, 
alder, etc., and in the lower southern part the oak, 
bamboo, ete. The fact that there are as many as 
700 varieties of useful trees in Chosen shows how 
peculiarly it is suited for afforestation on the 
very widest scale. 


264 THE NEW KOREA 


A ff orestation— 


To carry on the afforestation undertakings 
conducted at national expense, the slopes of 
Hakuundo in Keijo and of Botandai in Heijo 
were utilized in 1907, and later on the cities of 
Suigen, Taikyu, and Kaijo offered lands for the 
same purpose. In recent years afforestation of 
hillsides and waste lands has been taken up to 
prevent sand-drifts and to afford a future supply 
of timber, this work for the most part falling to 
the Lumber Undertaking Station and the branch 
offices of the Forestry Section, and the area so 
covered between 1907 and 1922 totaled 13,230 
acres, and the number of seedlings planted 16,- 
160,000. 

The first afforestation undertaking maintained 
at local expense was started in Kogen in 1911, 
and the example being followed, all the other 
provinces are now engaging in their own affor- 
estation works, the total area of 6,453 acres 
afforested up to the end of 1921 increasing to 
7,698 acres during the fiscal year 1922-3; and the 
number of seedlings planted from 11,320,000 to 
14,229,000. 

Plantations maintained by public bodies have 
made great progress in recent years, and, in addi- 
tion to undertakings on a small scale by individ- 
ual capitalists, the Oriental Development Com- 
pany, and others are also engaging in the work 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA — 265 


on a large scale and undertaking the develop- 
ment of lands self-planted, and from 1911 to 
1922 the area planted by private undertakings 
measured over 619,000 acres; and the trees 
planted numbered over 1,024,450,000, showing 
how energetically the work is being pursued. 

Since 1911 the 8rd of April has been regarded 
as Arbor Day, and on that day trees are planted 
in commemoration of the Emperor Jimmu. The 
eleventh Arbor Day in 1921 saw over 16,790,000 
trees planted, and the twelfth Arbor Day over 
13,850,000, the grand total planted since its in- 
stitution being over 188,285,000. 

In 1907 three seedling plantations were estab- 
lished at national expense, and, following them, 
local nurseries were established to the number of 
310 in all up to the end of 1912, when adjust- 
ment of them was effected. The seedlings raised 
are the Japanese red and black pine, acacia, 
alder, oak, larch, etc. In the fiscal year 1922-23 
the plantations maintained at national expense 
raised 7,380,000 seedlings, and disposed of 
1,730,000 young trees, while those maintained 
locally raised 26,450,000 seedlings, and disposed 
of 15,620,000 young trees. Private undertak- 
ings accounted for 168,810,000 seedlings and 
104,000,000 young trees, those raising over 
200,000 seedlings each for sale numbering 68. 
Of late years afforestation associations have 
started their own nurseries on a large scale. 


266 THE' NEW KOREA 


Apart from the routine work of research, ex- 
perimentation, regulation, and inspection, the 
Afforestation Section of the Industrial Bureau 
of the Government-General is occupied in car- 
rying out a number of projects in different parts 
of the country having to do with the planting of 
forests as a measure of protection against ex- 
tensive sand-drifting, and for the purpose of 
conserving the rainfall. As a matter of policy 
it was decided that work of this character, bene- 
ficial as it 1s to all classes of the people, should 
be undertaken by Government instead of being 
left in the hands of private interests engaged in 
forest industries. 

Accordingly an investigation was started in 
1919 of the basins of all the larger Korean rivers, 
and the areas needing conservation works were 
definitely determined. Working plans have been 
prepared, calling for operations over a period of 
years. The financing of these projects is effected 
by means of subsidies granted by the Govern- 
ment-General to the Provincial bodies concerned, 
and to private enterprises engaged in the under- 
taking. 


Fishery 


The following account of the Korean fisheries 
is taken from the Annual Report on Administra- 
tion of Chosen, 1922-23. 

Chosen has a coast-line over 10,700 miles long, 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 267 


including islands, and her waters are full of life, 
and the Government-General, since its establish- 
ment, has done as much as possible for the devel- 
opment of the fishing industry, so that the value 
of marine products amounted to 73,960,000 yen 
in this year, or eight times that at the time of the 
annexation. 

In 1909 laws and regulations relating to fish- 
ery were promulgated by the former Korean 
Government and were later adopted by the Gov- 
ernment-General, but as they did not conform to 
existing conditions and the future prospects of 
the industry, new regulations were drawn up and 
put into practice in April, 1912, providing for 
the granting of permission for exclusive fishing 
rights over a certain area of water, the circum- 
scription or prohibition of certain acts likely to 
obstruct fishing in adjoining areas, the granting 
of permission to applicants according to ancient 
custom as far as possible, and the prevention of 
the exercise of a monopoly in any fishing place 
by a private individual, and their enforcement 
has checked the tendency for speculation while 
encouraging applications from such persons as 
are willing to pursue the work in a steady and 
progressive way. 

For the protection and control of the fishing 
industry, regulations were promulgated at the 
same time as those relating to fishery, and placed 
some restrictions on the methods employed, the 


268 THE NEW KOREA 


tackle used, and the season and place for fishing. 
Trawling is entirely prohibited in the seas sur- 
rounding Chosen, the number of whaling boats is 
limited, and the number of diving apparatus also. 
In the days of the former Korean Government 
Chinese ships frequented the western coasts of 
Chosen for the purpose of fishing, and occasion- 
ally do so now, even in the face of strict prohibi- 
tion, but the vigilance of the local police and 
fishing associations has proved a check of late to 
the visits of these poachers. 

In order to encourage development in fishing, 
as the industry was not carried on to any great 
extent by the local people, part of the interest 
derived from the Extraordinary Imperial Dona- 
tion Funds, together with grants from the local 
revenues, was spent in giving special training to 
local fishermen and in providing educational or- 
gans for fishery by establishing a fishing school 
at Kunsan in 1915 and at Reisui in 1917. 

As the quantity of aquatic products exported 
tended to increase year by year, and there was no 
uniformity in quality of the various products, 
while dishonest practices were rather common, 
regulations relating to the examination of aquatic 
products were promulgated and put into practice 
in July, 1918, and the standard for each grade 
was made the same as that in Japan proper, so 
that export to Japan might be carried on more 
smoothly. 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA — 269 


The regulations relating to markets promul- 
gated in September, 1914, contained special pro- 
visions for fish markets as they were considered 
somewhat different from ordinary markets, while 
a government subsidy has annually been granted 
since the fiscal year 1912 to fishing ports and 
harbors, numbering about 300 in all, to effect 
various improvements in them. Of these ports, 
work on nine of the most important was finished 
by the end of the fiscal year 1920, and work on 
others is being taken up on a large scale. 


Experiments in Aquatic Products— 


In order to promote the development of the 
fishing industry, the Government-General has 
been engaging in aquatic experiments since 1912 
under three heads: (1) study of the fish fre- 
quenting Korean waters with regard to varieties, 
distribution, coming and going, suitability of 
methods employed in catching them, and eco- 
nomic conditions; (2) experimental preparation 
since 1917 of salted and dried fish intended for 
China and America, and (8) artificial incubation 
of salmon at Kogen in South Kankyo since 1912 
and naturalization of oysters at Koshin in South 
Zenra since 1918, together with experiments in 
raising fresh-water fish. 

These experiments are still being carried on, 
and though some of them have already been pro- 
ductive of good results, further practical and 


270 THE NEW KOREA 


scientific investigation and study is necessary for 
the future development of the fishing industry, 
so the establishment of an Experimental Fishing 
Station, as a central organ, was started at Fusan 
in 1920 and completed this year. 


Development of the Fishing Industry— 


As Chosen is a peninsula it has great advan- 
tages in the pursuit of fishing, but in the days of 
the former Korean Government nothing was 
done to develop it, so progress in it was alto- 
gether wanting. This supineness on the part of 
the Government disappeared on the establish- 
ment of the present régime, and much has since 
been done to bring the industry into a more flour- 
ishing condition, so much so that the value of 
fishing products, which was only 8,100,000 yen 
at the time of the annexation, increased to 51,- 
000,000 yen in the fiscal year 1923-24, while the 
value of prepared aquatic products increased 
from 2,650,000 yen in 1911 to 29,614,000 yen in 
the fiscal year 1922-23. 

As for the fishing methods employed, they 
were of a most ancient and elementary character, 
and the Koreans engaged in fishing never ven- 
tured far from the coast, but seeing that the 
Japanese fishermen coming over made use of 
more profitable methods, they followed their ex- 
ample and gradually began to go farther and 
farther afield, with the result that steam and 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 271 


motor-boats for the transportation of fish came 
into use, and fishing was started on a large scale, 
especially for mackerel, the catch of which was 
worth over 5,800,000 yen in 1921. 

In preparing aquatic products salting and 
drying were done in a very crude manner, as only 
the home market was served, but with the coming 
of Japanese fishermen new methods were intro- 
duced, while their more general use was quick- 
ened by the institution of the system of examina- 
tion of fish for export in 1918. 

The reason why the various aquatic products 
showed tendency to disappear from Korean 
waters in the days of the former Korean Gov- 
ernment was that no control was exercised over 
the fishing industry, and it was carried on more 
or less regardless of time and seasons, in addition 
to which large sums must be locked up for many 
years in its pursuit before adequate returns begin 
to come in. The strenuous efforts of the Govern- 
ment-General, however, have resulted in many 
undertakings being started, among which the 
most flourishing is the cultivation of the laver in 
South Keisho and South Zenra. 

As groups of Japanese fishermen were in the 
habit of coming over to fish in Korean waters, the 
Chosen Fishery Association League was estab- 
lished at Fusan in 1900 in order to offer con- 
venience to these men, and this effected gradual 
enlargement in their fishing grounds, and in- 


272 THE NEW KOREA 


duced more groups to come over. Japanese 
fishermen making permanent settlement here 
were found at first only on the coast of South 
Zenra and South Keisho, but they soon yearly 
increased in number through goverment help and 
gradually found a home in every maritime prov- 
ince. They now number more than 14,200 in all, 
and have founded forty fishing hamlets contain- 
ing five or more families, and in conjunction with 
Korean fishermen are doing much to help on the 
development of the fishing industry. 


Economic Progress of the Fishing Industry—. 


No phase of the economic development of 
Korea has shown a more remarkable rate of 
growth than the fishing industry. In 1912 the 
value of the catch was, in round figures, eight 
million yen, in 1923 it was fifty-two million. 
During the same period the value of fresh fish 
exported (about 90 percent going to Japan) rose 
from 138,000 yen to nine million, the value of 
manufactured marine products from four million 
yen to twenty-nine million, and the value of 
manufactured marine products exported, chiefly 
to Japan, from 1,500,000 to 14,000,000. 

In the order of their market value, as realized 
in 1923, the principal fish caught in Korean 
waters were mackerel, sardines and anchovies, 
pollock, several species of sciaena (known in the 
United States as redfish, red-horse, red-bass, and 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA = 273 


channel bass), herring, sea-bream, tunnyfish, cod, 
and plaice. 


Mining 
Historical— 


The following account of the development of 
mining in Korea is condensed from pages 85 to 
90 of The Economic History of Chosen compiled 
by Mr. T. Hoshino, Manager of the Research 
Department of the Bank of Chosen. 

Precious metals and economically useful met- 
als and minerals are well represented in Korea. 
The list includes gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, 
tungsten, molybdenum, iron, graphite, coal, kao- 
finite, and siliceous sand. 

Until comparatively recent times the mining 
industry in Korea was conducted on a very small 
scale. The first mining concession granted to a 
foreigner was one given to an American, Mr. 
James R. Morse, in 1896. Other concessions 
followed, almost all of them being for gold min- 
ing. The only other mining activities in the early 
days were connected with coal and iron. ‘These 
were conducted by a French company, a Korean- 
American Company, and a small group of 
Japanese, acting as agents for the Imperial 
Household. 

The mining administration of Korea was ex- 
tremely ill-managed, deeply corrupted by brib- 


274 THE NEW KOREA 


ery, favoritism, and the overlapping of the func- 
tions of the Korean Court and of the Korean 
Government. In some cases a_ concession 
granted at one time was revoked at another with- 
out good reason or compensation, and wantonly 
bestowed upon a new concessionaire. The min- 
ing tax was not only collected by different de- 
partments of the government but also by the 
Korean Imperial Household itself, and often 
twice over, while the local authorities also im- 
posed an arbitrary tariff. In such circumstances 
no healthy progress of the mining industry could 
be hoped for. 

On the establishment of the Japanese protec- 
torate in 1905, steps were taken to reform the 
abuses, and new laws were enacted and put in 
force in 1906. Enacted to meet urgent needs, 
these laws left much to be desired; and the min- 
ing regulations were amended from time to time 
until, in 1915, the last mining law was promul- 
gated. 

At the end of the protectorate régime (1910) 
the list of mining concessions showed the holders 
to be: American, 4 corporations and 4 individ- 
uals; English, 2 corporations and 1 individual; 
Italian, 1 individual. In addition there were 
several held by Japanese and Americans jointly, 
and by Koreans and Americans jointly. 

Japanese activity in the Korean mining field— 
apart from a Government coal mine, and two 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 275 


Government iron mines—was unimportant prior 
to the annexation of 1910. In 1911, however, 
several important Japanese firms entered the 
field, and in subsequent years they were followed 
by others. Their activities have been chiefly 
concerned with coal and iron. 


Present State of the Mining Industry— 


In order to obtain material for keeping the 
mining administration in touch with the times 
and to afford convenience to those operating 
mines, investigation of mineral deposits was 
begun as a continuing work for six years in the 
fiscal year 1911, and was all but completed in 
the time stated, the only part left undone being 
in the south, and there investigation was contin- 
ued for another year and completed in the fiscal 
year 1917. Reports were published as the vari- 
ous provinces were investigated, much to the 
benefit of the mining industry in Chosen. 

The investigation of mineral products being 
completed, the men charged with it were trans- 
ferred in a body to the newly formed Geological 
Investigation Office in the fiscal year 1918. This 
office engages in the investigation of the nature 
of the soil, useful minerals and rocks, water 
utilization, civil engineering, and the making of 
maps. As it was estimated that it would take the 
office thirty years to complete this new work, the 
staff was increased in the fiscal year 1920 so that 


276 THE NEW KOREA 


the work might be done in half the time, that is in 
fifteen years. 

The post-war business depression seriously 
affected the mining industry in Korea. The 
Government-General has undertaken several 
measures designed to improve _ conditions. 
Among these are the encouragement of improved 
mining methods and of metallurgical technique, 
and the reduction of taxation on newly estab- 
lished mining rights. 

For the past few years, mining products have 
been yearly on the increase, the total value reach- 
ing nineteen million yen in 1925. Owing to 
lower prices of commodities and labor on the one 
hand and to the rise in the market price of gold 
on the other, gold mining has been especially 
active of late. Coal mines are also in favorable 
condition. As a result of recent investigation of 
coal fields the state and volume of their deposits 
have been ascertained, and various experiments 
in the use of Korean coal have led to a wider use 
of it by the people, so it is expected that coal 
mining in Korea will make great strides in the 
future. 

A new baryte mine recently discovered in 
Kogen Province is considered to be one of the 
greatest of its kind in the world. 

The total value of the output of metals and 
minerals in Korea in 1910 was 6,000,000 yen. 
In 1918 the value rose to its highest point, of 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 277 


about 31,000,000 yen, reflecting the urgent de- 
mand and the high prices of the last year of the 
European War. In 1921 the value fell to 
15,500,000 yen, which represents the normal 
growth of the industry since 1910. 

Classified according to values the output in 
1912, 1921, and 1923 was as follows: 


VALUE or THE MetTAt anp MiIneERAL Output In Korea 


(In thousands of yen. 1 yen=50 cents U. S.) 


1912 1921 1923 
CFOLG Siok els Cale ates ae 4,580 2,992 3,914 
Allavialvold ceo. akin. 670 359 336 
a Be eed Pe tee eee ote 546 3,192 2,750 
Thon OTe ha rs Ss as 156 1,716 1,806 
RITON, eavi g as ate een Wis aay are a < 4,829 5,684 
Concentrates............ 275 1,489 1,626 
Gold and Silver Ore...... 3 587 590 
Grapiiter sn, asaya e cee 182 209 258 


A others ay 3) ca oie 228 214 362 


Stargate share a6": 6,640 15,587 17,326 





CHAPTER XIII 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF 
KOREA 


III. Commerct, MANUFACTURES, AND 
BANKING 


Currency— 


Under the native Korean Government the 
development of commerce and manufactures had 
been held back by a combination of adverse con- 
ditions. Of these the most important were the 
deplorable state of the Korean currency and the 
insecurity of life and property. 

The old Korean currency was, in theory, based 
upon the silver standard; but in practice the 
Korean mint issued so few silver coins that prac- 
tically all money transactions were carried out by 
the use either of copper cash, called yupchun, or 
of nickel coins named tang-pak and tang-oh, the 
former nominally worth one hundred cash, the 
latter worth five cash. 

The copper cash were open to two serious ob- 
jections, one that their actual exchange value 
against goods depended upon the intrinsic value 

278 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 279 


of their copper content, and varied therefore with 
the market value of copper, the other that their 
value was so small that in large transactions the 
bulk and weight of the payment presented seri- 
ous difficulties of transportation. ‘Thus when 
the Japanese army bought timber in the interior 
of Korea, during the Chino-Japanese War, it 
had to charter a steamer and fill her completely 
with copper cash in order to finance the transac- 
tion. 

The nickel coinage, on the other hand, was a 
token coinage, stamped with a nominal value. 
Originally minted by the Korean Government to 
serve as a currency auxiliary to the copper 
yupchun it circulated for a short time at its face 
value. But the difference between the intrinsic 
and the face value of these coins made their issue 
a very profitable business, so that finally the 
Royal Korean Mint issued them indiscriminately, 
with the result that their face value ceased to 
have any significance. The final abandonment 
of the old Korean nickels was hastened by the 
rapid growth of counterfeiting. A curious fea- 
ture of this activity was that it was countenanced 
by the Korean officials, in consideration of bribes 
paid by the coiners, and that the official dies of 
the Royal Mint were sometimes rented to coun- 
terfeiters. 

The following account of the Japanese reform 


280 THE NEW KOREA 


of the Korean currency is condensed from the 
Government-General’s Annual Report for the 
Fiscal Y ear 1910-11. 

When a Japanese financial adviser was en- 
gaged by the Korean Government in 1904, dur- 
ing the war with Russia, he caused the Korean 
Government to adopt the following measures of 
currency reform: 

(1) The monetary standard of Korea was to 
be made identical with that of Japan. In order 
to effect this, the Currency Regulations, modeled 
on the Japanese Gold Standard Regulations and 
issued by the Korean Government in 1901, were 
to be put in operation. 

(2) The old nickel coins were to be withdrawn 
from circulation, while the old copper cash were 
to remain in use for the time being. 

(3) As soon as asound subsidiary coinage was 
put in circulation the old copper cash were also to 
be withdrawn. 

(4) The Dai-ichi Ginko (the First Bank, of 
Japan) which already enjoyed extensive credit in 
Korea, was to be allowed to discharge the func- 
tions of a central bank, and its notes were to be 
recognized as legal tender in all transactions, 
public or private. The currency of the Imperial 
Japanese Government, whether coined money, or 
bank-notes, being identical in quality with that 
provided for in the Currency Regulations of the 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 281 


Korean Government, was to be legal tender 
throughout the Peninsula. 

(5) The currency readjustment was to be car- 
ried out by the Dai-ichi Ginko, under the super- 
vision of the Minister of Finance of the Korean 
Government. 

As a first step toward currency reform, the 
Royal Korean Mint was closed in November, 
1904, and the work of issuing a new coinage for 
Korea was entrusted to the Imperial Japanese 
Mint in Osaka. 

The withdrawal of nickels and of copper cash 
began in July, 1905, and by February, 1911, 
nearly four hundred million nickels had been 
withdrawn, and copper cash to the value of about 
six million yen. The total net cost of getting rid 
of the chaotic monetary system of the old Korean 
Government and of replacing it with one iden- 
tical with the gold-standard system of Japan was 
less than eight million yen—an extremely small 
price to pay for the manifold advantages of a 
stable currency. 

At the beginning of 1918 it was estimated that 
the value of coinage in circulation in Korea was 
69,600,000 yen, of which less than three million 
yen were represented by the old Korean coinage. 
On April 1, 1918, the Coinage Law of Japan 
was enacted in Korea, and the circulation of 
Korean coins was prohibited as from the first day 


282 THE NEW KOREA 


of 1921, the Government engaging to exchange 
them for Japanese coins during the five succeed- 
ing years. 

Bank-notes were first issued in Korea in 1902 
by the Dai-Ichi Ginko. Three years later these 
notes were made legal tender in the Peninsula. 
On the establishment of the Bank of Chosen in 
1909 the note-issue privilege was transferred to 
it. In 1912 the value of Bank of Chosen Notes 
in circulation was approximately 25 million yen, 
and of metal currency four million yen. At the 
beginning of 1922 these values had risen, respec- 
tively, to 101 million yen and nine million 
yen. 

With the settlement of the currency question 
and the rapid progress made after the annexation 
of 1910 in the suppression of banditry through- 
out the country, conditions speedily became such 
as to encourage the investment of Japanese 
capital in the Peninsula, and the planning 
of a general development of the country’s 
resources. 


Economic Development— 


The broad features of this development, so far 
as they relate to commerce and manufactures are 
disclosed in the following table, in which banking 
statistics are included as an index to the volume 
of financing: 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 288 


GrowTH or ComMMERCE, MANUFACTURES, AND BANKING IN Korza, 
1912-1923 


(In thousands of yen. 1 yen = 50 cents U. S.) 


















1912 1923 





Commerce: 
Value ol exportsis. site acace be eee 20,985 261,665 
Value lotimportes (20) Como ne aka 67,115 265,790 
‘Total foreign trades:.i.4 chile sae as ae) 88,100 527,555 
Manufactures: 
Factory products. voce eee 29,362 242,788 
Home products ne van oust van ees 10,431 179,207 
Banking: 
Paicd-up capital. yi oo, ase vet 14,851 84,150 
Reserve fimdsrr i: nis Seale eekie anus ¢ 699 16,771 
Deposita se omen tee VECeUg 27,837 275,879 
LOGTSU oh Lak oe Gero yhry wate ad) 58,070 409,302 






Commerce 


The Foreign Trade of Korea— 


The geographical position of Korea as the close 
neighbor of the most advanced commercial nation 
in the Far East has led naturally to the pre- 
dominance of Japan in the foreign trade of the 
country. It is interesting to note that the an- 
nexation of Korea by Japan in 1910 has not been 
followed by any striking increase in the propor- 
tion of Korea’s foreign trade enjoyed by the 
sovereign power. In 1907 Japan’s share of the 
foreign trade of Korea was 70.7 per cent; in 1921 
it was 78.5 per cent. During that fourteen- 
year period the value of Korean exports to 
Japan increased from a proportion of 76.3 per 
cent of the total to 90.4 per cent, and the propor- 


284 THE NEW KOREA 


THe Forrign ComMMEeRcE oF Korera 
Value of exports to and of imports from various countries 


(Values in thousands of yen. 1 yen = 50 cents U. S.) 


1907 1912 1921 
Japan: 
Exports 15,369 | 197,392 
Imports 28,293 40,756 156,482 


56,125 | 353,374 


Exports 4,058 | 19,293 
TIN Ports ees eae eN Nan en Nany 7,027 50,188 


11,085 69,411 

United States: 
Exports 95 302 
Imports 6,460 14,374 
6,555 14,676 


198 
9,801 


9,999 


All others: 
Exports 1,265 
3,070 


4,335 
Grand total: 
Exports 16,973 20,985 218,277 
Imports 41,387 67,115 232,381 


58,360 | 88,100 | 450,658 





ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 285 


tion of Korean imports from Japan decreased 
from 68.4 per cent to 67.3 per cent of the total. 
These contrary movements are to be explained 
as to exports by the heavy investment of Japan- 
ese capital in Korea and by the large demand in 
Japan for Korean products, whether for domes- 
tic consumption or for export. So far as Korean 
imports are concerned, the increase in non- 
Japanese imports reflects the increased demand 
in the Peninsula for commodities which Japan is 
not able to supply, particularly for Italian mul- 
let, wild cocoons, fertilizer, coal, petroleum and 
hemp cloth, most of which come from China. 


Distribution of Foreign Trade— 


The distribution of this commerce on the basis 
of the percentage of it carried out by the various 
countries trading with Korea is shown in the 
table on page 286. 


Gold and Silver Bullion— 


The following tables do not include the value 
of gold and of silver bullion. The export of the 
latter is insignificant, not having reached a value 
of 40,000 yen in any year since 1919. 

The export of gold bullion reached a value 
every year from 1910 to 1916 second only to that 
of rice, rising from about nine million yen in the 
former year to over fifteen million in the latter. 


286 THE NEW KOREA 


PRoporTION OF KorzEA’s FoREIGN COMMERCE CONDUCTED WITH VARIOUS 
CouNTRIES 


(The figures refer to the percentage of the value of exports, of imports, 
and of the total foreign commerce) 


1907 1912 


Japan: 
Exports 76. 
Imports 68. 


Exports 
Imports 


Great Britain: 
Exports 
Imports 








ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 287 


Gold production was, however, seriously affected 
by the Great War, and the value of its export 
fell to six million yen in 1918. 

During the years noted the value of the export 
of gold bullion has been as follows: 1919, 4,415,- 
249 yen; 1920, 23,822,078 yen; 1921, 7,282,742 
yen; 1922, 3,961,154 yen; 1923, 5,586,985 yen. 

It may be noted that Korea furnishes nearly 
half of the total gold production of the Japanese 
Empire. The two largest gold mines in Korea 
are owned by American companies. They pro- 
duce about 61 per cent of the total output. 


General Character of the Export Trade— 


Considerably more than half of the value of 
Korean exports is represented by agricultural 
products, of which rice is more important than 
all the other items added together. The develop- 
ment of the various branches of the export trade 
is shown in the following table: 


VALUE oF Korean Exports 
(In thousands of yen. 1 yen=50 cents U. S.) 


Products 1912 1923 


160,378 
33,944 
29,080 
11,380 

7,209 
19,674 


261,665 





288 THE NEW KOREA 


The foregoing table covers a period of eleven 
years. It discloses an almost unparalleled rec- 
ord of economic development. I am by no means 
convinced that economic development is any 
criterion of the general advance of the society 
which has enjoyed, or suffered, from it. But, in 
respect of Korea, it may be said that, if we are 
to believe the boosters and rotarians, who form 
so large a proportion of the people who are giv- 
ing its present tone to Western civilization, the 
Japanese administration in Korea has done more 
to advance the interests of Korea than any other 
government has done to advance the interests of 
any country in the world within the period with 
which the above table deals. 

That Korean agricultural exports should have 
increased in little more than a decade by more 
than a thousand per cent; industrial exports by 
more than three thousand per cent, fishery ex- 
ports by nearly three thousand per cent, for- 
estry exports by more than four thousand per 
cent, and mineral exports by more than a thou- 
sand per cent, would, if Korea were a self- 
governing country instead of a Japanese colonial 
dependency, be hailed throughout the Western 
world as an astounding example of national 
progress. 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA — 289 


General Character of the Import Trade— 


The total value of imports into Korea in 1923 
was 265,790,000 yen. The following table shows 
the values of the imported articles which, indi- 
vidually, represented as large a proportion as — 
2 per cent of the total value of imports in any of 
the years covered by the table: 


VALUE or Principat ARTICLES IMPORTED INTO KorEA 


(In thousands of yen. 1 yen=50 cents U.S.) 


1912 1917 1923 


Cotton shirting, sheeting, and drill} 9,744 14,459 23,616 
Yarns and threads 2,537 5,751 14,373 
Tialigve muleleenaac ces tse) occ: 273 1,324 13,313 
Clothing and accessories 1,652 2,233 12,030 

1,525 3,598 9,599 
Lumber, various 2,263 1,803 7,905 


Machinery 4,663 6,877 
Chinese cloth 1,485 2,210 5,181 
Silk tissue 1,383 841 7,742 
1,506 2,303 4,995 

336 1,048 4,198 

1,770 2,651 4,171 

1,685 4,147 

140 7,300 





* Value too small to have separate item in import returns of 1912. 


The contrasts between the figures for 1912 and 
those for 1923 disclose several interesting fea- 
tures of the general progress of the country. 
Especially noteworthy, as reflecting the improve- 
ment of agricultural methods, is the fifty-fold in- 
crease between 1917 and 1923 of the importation 
of bean-cake manure. The general economic ad- 


290 THE NEW KOREA 


vance of the Korean people is shown by the fol- 
lowing increases in certain imports between 1912 
and 1923: cotton shirting, etc., 260 per cent; 
yarns and threads, 470 per cent; clothing and 
accessories, 628 per cent; sugar, 233 per cent; 
kerosene, 135 per cent; medicines, 1,149 per cent. 
Of course these increases do not represent a net 
increase in Korean home consumption, as much 
of the material is used in manufactures of which 
the product is exported; and further, the general 
advance in prices means that the increases in 
volume are less than the increases in values. 
But, with such deductions made, the figures do 
unquestionably indicate a considerable general 
advance in the Korean standard of living. 


Manufactures 


As the relations between Japan and Korea be- 
came closer after the Chino-Japanese War, the 
question arose as to whether it was advisable to 
encourage the development of manufacturing in- 
dustries in the Peninsula. Opinion was sharply 
divided on the matter. On the one hand were 
those who advocated every possible increase in 
the raw products, and especially of the agricul- 
tural products of Korea, and the continued de- 
pendence of the country upon the importation of 
manufactured products from Japan. 

On the other hand there were many Japanese, 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 291 


of whom Count Terauchi, the first Governor- 
General of Korea, was the most prominent, who 
held the view that it was to the best interest of 
Korea that she should develop manufacturing 
industries of her own. The principal argument 
advanced on this side was that in the absence of 
manufacturing industries Korea would face a 
constant and increasing adverse trade balance. 
This view prevailed. That it was amply justi- 
fied is proved by the event. As the Korean man- 
ufacturing industries have grown, so the value of 
the excess imports has decreased, proportion- 
ately, in relation to the value of the total foreign 
trade. In 1912 the excess import-value over 
export-value was 46 million yen on a total for- 
elon trade value of 88 million yen; in 1923 it was 
only 4 million yen on a total foreign-trade value 
of 527 million yen. In other words, the ratio of 
excess-import value to total foreign-trade value, 
fell during the ten-year period from 52 to 100 
to less than 1 to 100. To the encouragement of 
manufacturing industry and of commerce in 
general the Government-General has devoted 
considerable sums of money. The expenditure 
falls under two heads—one including the sala- 
ries, traveling and other expenses of the per- 
sonnel engaged in administrative business con- 
nected with manufacturing and commercial 
activities, and in the research work of the Gov- 
ernment Central Laboratory; the other grants- 


292 THE NEW KOREA 


in-aid, of various kinds. The expenditure on 
this acount is shown in the following table: 


GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE TO FostER COMMERCE 
AND MANUFACTURES 


(Figures in yen. 1 yen=50 cents U. S.) 


Syepenae’ | Grantsin-Aid | Total 


358,606 311,732 670,338 
414,458 216,451 630,909 
627,925 218,396 | 846,321 
746,345 323,396 1,069,741 
385,365 323,396 708,761 
367,060 30,146 397,206 
518,138 30,396 548,534 
650,069 101,500 751,569 
752,835 110,518 863,353 
1,024,328 219,000 1,243,328 


5,845,129 1,884,931 7,730,060 





In 1912 there were in Korea 328 private manu- 
facturing plants, equipped with mechanical 
power and employing more than five hands as a 
daily average. ‘The capital invested in these fac- 
tories was 13,000,000 yen, the number of oper- 
atives 17,000, the total horse-power of the equip- 
ment was 8,000, and the value of the year’s pro- 
duction was 29,000,000 yen. The European 
War gave a great impetus to the local manufac- 
turing industries. In 1921 the number of fac- 
tories had risen to 2,384, the invested capital to 
179,000,000 yen, the number of operatives to 
49,000, the horsepower to 86,000. 

In order to get an accurate picture of the 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 298 


progress of manufactures in Korea it 1s necessary 
to divide the industrial products into three classes 
—home products, factory products, and factory- 
treated products. The first includes products 
made in the people’s homes; the second, products 
in which the factory treatment to which they are 
subjected represents, as against the cost of the 
raw material, the principal item in determining 
the selling price, products such as fats and oils, 
straw and bamboo goods, liquors, and so on; the 
third, products where the cost of the factory 
process is small as against the cost of the raw 
material treated, processes such as rice-cleaning 
and polishing, the production of gas and elec- 
tricity, the refining of various raw materials. 

The value of home products rose from 10 mil- 
lion yen in 1£12, reached a high point of 212 mil- 
lion in 1919, and fell to 179 million in 1923. The 
value of factory products rose from about 7 mil- 
lion yen in 1910 to 82 million in 1923. The value 
of factory-treated products rose from 29 million 
yen in 1910 to 242 million in 1923. 

Taking these three classes of products and 
combining their values, the total value of manu- 
factured products rose from about 40 million yen 
in 1912 to 421 million in 1923—an increase of 
952 per cent. It is interesting to note that home 
products which in 1912 accounted for only about 
25 per cent of the total value of manufactures, 
accounted for more than 40 per cent in 1923. 


294 THE NEW KOREA 


This reflects, no doubt, the influence of the indus- 
trial training schools and of the Government- 
General’s encouragement of home industries. 

In the order of their importance, as measured 
by the values in 1928, the principal home prod- 
ucts were: liquors, 38 million yen; textiles, 23 
million; straw articles, 20 million; tissue manu- 
factures, 20 million; metal-ware, 8 million; flour, 
8 million; fertilizers, 7 million; yeast, 5 million; 
wooden-ware, 5 million; ceramics, 4 million; 
cakes, 4 million; silk cocoons, 3 million. 

In the two categories of factory-products and 
factory-treated products the principal items 
were, in 1923, as follows: cleaned rice, 108 mil- 
lion; tobacco, 22 million; ginned cotton, 8 mil- 
lion; iron, 9 million; gas and electricity, 8 
million; lumber, 7 million; sugar, 6 million; 
printed matter, 6 million; raw silk, 5 million; 
refined metals, 5 million; cotton-yarn, 5 million; 
machinery and implements, 5 million; drugs, 3 
million; pottery, tiles, bricks, etc., 3 million. 


Banking 
Historical— 


The first bank to be established in Korea was 
the Fusan branch of the Dai-Ichi Ginko (First 
Bank of Japan). This was opened in 1878 at 
the time when the ports of Gensan and Che- 
mulpo were opened to foreign trade. Some years 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA = 295 


later two other Japanese banks, the Eighteenth 
Bank, and the Fifty-eighth Bank (now the One 
Hundred and Thirtieth Bank) opened branches 
in Korea. 

It was not until 1899 that the first Korean 
bank was established, the Chyon-il, and a second, 
the Hansung Bank, opened its doors in 1901. 

Prior to the opening of the banks referred to 
above there had been no banks in Korea, as we 
understand the term. What money-lending was 
done, apart from purely personal transactions, 
was in the hands of pawnbrokers, small loan 
associations called ““Mutual Money Accommcda- 
tion Societies,” and inn-keepers. ‘These agencies 
received money on deposit at interest, made 
loans, and discounted promissory notes. 

Bank notes were first issued in Korea in 1902 
by the First Bank. At that time the general 
economic condition of the country was very un- 
satisfactory. This led to the appointment, in 
1904, of a Japanese financial expert as adviser to 
the Korean Government. In the following year 
the First Bank was entrusted with the duty of 
adjusting the chaotic monetary system and of 
conducting the business of the national Korean 
treasury. ‘Chis bank was also granted the privi- 
lege of issuing paper money, and it thus became 
the first central bank of Korea. 

In the following years various steps were 
taken to improve credit and banking facilities. 


296 THE NEW KOREA 


Among these the more important were the estab- 
lishment of agricultural and industrial banks in 
the provinces, the issuance of regulations for the 
formation of People’s Banking Associations, and 
the creation of the Oriental Development Com- 
pany. 

This Company was formed as a joint-stock 
enterprise of which the shares could be held only 
by Japanese and Koreans. In its general char- 
acter it was concerned chiefly with the agricul- 
tural development of the country and with secur- 
ing suitable agricultural immigrants from Japan. 
It was specifically authorized by the Government 
of Korea to undertake the following forms of 
financial business: the loan of funds to Japanese 
and Korean agriculturists, on the instalment 
plan of repayment; making fixed-time loans on 
the security of immovable property; and loans to 
settlers and farmers in Korea on the security of 
their produce and their movable property. 

The following account of banking in Korea 
from 1908 onwards is condensed from a Govern- 
ment Report. 

By 1908 the general economic and financial de- 
velopment of Korea had advanced to such an 
extent that it was found inconvenient to conduct 
the treasury business of the Korean Government, 
and the issue of paper money through an ordi- 
nary bank, even though it was de facto a central 


bank. 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 297 


Accordingly in 1909 the Korean Government 
promulgated regulations under which late in the 
year the Bank of Korea (now called the Bank 
of Chosen) was established, as a de jure central 
bank, and assumed the duties and responsibilities 
which had formerly rested with the Dai-Ichi 
Ginko. 

In 1910 Korea was annexed to Japan. ‘This 
step affected the banking situation to the extent 
that whereas formerly the banking activities of 
Koreans had to be conducted under the local 
Korean laws and those of Japanese in the Penin- 
sula under the Imperial Japanese laws, it now 
became possible, as it became also highly desir- 
able, to make a single body of banking law for 
Korea. 

Various laws and regulations were put in force 
from 1912 onward and they are now contained in 
four instruments—the Bank of Chosen Law, the 
Industrial Bank Ordinance, the Bank Ordi- 
nance, and the People’s Banking Association 
Ordinance. 

Encouraged by the financial expansion pro- 
moted by the industrial development, and espe- 
cially influenced by the World War, many banks 
have been established in the provinces, but the 
existing agricultural and industrial banks were 
found much too weak to cope with the increasing 
demand for funds, their capital all told being 
only 2,600,000 yen, so to remedy this weakness 


298 THE NEW KOREA 


the Chosen Industrial Bank Regulations were 
promulgated in 1918, and all the agricultural and 
industrial banks in the Peninsula were merged 
into the Industrial Bank of Chosen with a capital 
of 10,000,000 yen, and to this the Government is 
giving special protection and supervision with the 
object of facilitating the supply of funds for in- 
dustrial undertakings. 

The regulations concerning People’s Banking 
Associations were revised in 1918 for the benefit 
of smaller banking organs established to meet the 
needs of the peasantry, and the wider establish- 
ment of such associations in villages was encour- 
aged. In the towns, too, the establishment of 
associations of similar character for the benefit of 
small traders was encouraged. 

These associations have formed federations 
according to their geographical distribution, so 
that any excess or deficiency of funds may be the 
more easily adjusted. Each federation super- 
vises the business of the associations in the same 
province, and the Government has extended aid 
to them by lending each one a sum of 200,000 
yen. They are required to maintain connection 
and co-operate with the Industrial Bank of 
Chosen in facilitating monetary circulation in the 
provinces. 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 299 


Banking Statistics— 


The banks included in the general banking 
statistics are the Bank of Chosen, the Chosen 
Industrial Bank, and Ordinary Banks (20 in 
number in 1923, with 64 branch offices in Korea) 
which operate under the terms of the Bank Ordi- 
nance. This law is, in respect of banking rules 
and Government supervision, based in the main 
on the banking regulations in force in Japan. 

The following table shows the general condi- 
tion of banking in Korea during the ten years 
ending with 1924. The figures do not include the 
data in relation to the banking operations of the 
Oriental Development Company, or of the 
People’s Banking Associations, to which refer- 
ence will be found in later sections of this chap- 
ter. 


BANKING STATISTICS OF KorEA 
(In thousands of yen. 1 yen=50 cents U. S.) 


Net 
Profits 


Conte i Reserve Deposits * 
540 

1,542 

1,858 

2,462 

5,193 

125,265 270,647 5,626 

139,357 230,696 10,253 

171,891 307,260 10,901 

168,171 301,393 9,542 

216,522 395,288 7,478 

16,771 275,879 409,302 7,666 





*In Korea. 


300 THE NEW KOREA 


It will be noted that the ten-year period end- 
ing with 1924 showed an increase of approxi- 
mately 870 per cent in paid-up banking capital, 
of 1,000 per cent in reserve funds, of 666 per cent 
in deposits, of 580 per cent in loans. 


The Bank of Chosen— 


This bank occupies a special position in Korea. 
It is the fiscal agent of the Government-General 
of Chosen, and enjoys the exclusive right of issu- 
ing bank notes. It was founded in 1909 under 
the name of The Korean Bank. After the an- 
nexation of 1910 it was renamed the Bank of 
Chosen. The Governor and the Vice Governor 
of the Bank are appointed by the Imperial 
Japanese Government. Until September, 1924, 
the supervision of the Bank was in the hands of 
the Government-General of Chosen, and the 
directors were appointed by the Governor- 
General from among candidates elected at a 
general meeting of the shareholders, such can- 
didates to be twice the number of directors to 
be appointed. On that date, however, the super- 
vision was transferred to the Imperial Japanese 
Government, and the appointment of directors 
placed in the hands of the Japanese Finance 
Minister. 

The main features of the bank’s condition dur- 
ing the four years ending with 1923 are shown in 
the following table: 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 301 


BusINESS OF THE BANK OF CHOSEN 
(In thousands of yen. 1 yen=50 cents U. S.) 


1920 1921 1922 1923 
Paid-up capital ..... 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000 
Bank-notes issued...| 114,034 137,611 101,658 110,750 
Deposits: 
In Korea. ........ 46,920 39,028 42,036 95,586 
InJapan. wee: 69,930 69,681 76,021 25,866 
In Manchuria..... 28,129 34,005 32,518 31,487 
Elsewhere. ....... 15,642 19,777 9,835 9,891 
Matabs ese ssa 160,621 | 162,941 | 160,410 | 162,830 
Loans 
irs Korea octet 77,232 90,183 66,581 134,895 
LS SDAN ee iia 137,597 |. 54,605 136,416 122,699 
In Manchuria..... 72,573 118,357 107,547 115,110 
Elsewhere........ 6,863 10,599 8,413 10,352 
Total dnc 294,265 373,744 321,357 383,056 





Comparing the above figures with those given 
on page 299, it is seen that the Bank of Chosen 
had, in 1923, about one-third of the bank deposits 
in Korea, and put out about one-third of the 
banking loans in Korea. 

During the past few years the Bank of Chosen 
has been embarrassed owing to bad loans made 
outside of Korea. The matter came to a head in 
1925; and at a general meeting of the share- 
holders held in August of that year, a resolution 
was passed to reduce the capital of the bank by 
one-half, and the number of its shares in the 
same proportion. 


302 THE NEW KOREA 


The Chosen Industrial Bank— 


This bank has a paid-up capital of 15 million 
yen. During the past few years it has experi- 
enced a great expansion in its business. Between 
1918 and 1923 its issue of debentures increased 
from 3,000,000 to 100,000,000 in the year, its 
reserve fund from 600,000 to 2,000,000, its de- 
posits from 15,000,000 to 48,000,000, and its 
loans from 80,000,000 to 172,000,000. Its net 
profits increased from 400,000 yen in 1919 to 
nearly 2,000,000 in 1923. 


Ordinary Banks— 


These banks had in 1923 an aggregate capital 
of 19 million yen, with reserve funds of about 
2,500,000. ‘Their deposits amounted to 73 mil- 
lion, their loans to 88 million, and their net profits 
to something over two million. ‘Their business 
has shown a steady development year by year. 


People’s Banking Associations— 


These were first organized in 1907, and are 
modeled on the best features of the Reifeisen 
and Schulze systems. They resemble the 
People’s Credit Associations of Japan, but are 
better managed than the latter. The system is 
considered one of the most useful measures ever 
adopted in Korea, and it is fully appreciated by 
the people, as is proved by the rapid expansion 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA — 3038 


of their business. In the ten years ending with 
1924 the number of these Associations increased 
from 240 to 509, the number of members from 
66 thousand to 375 thousand, the capital sub- 
scribed by members from 786 thousand yen to 
nearly eight million, the reserve funds from 529 
thousand to nearly five million, the deposits from 
197 thousand yen to nearly 38 million, loans 
from about two million to more than 58 million, 
and the net profits from 64 thousand to nearly 
two million. 

These banks are grouped in thirteen Iedera- 
tions of People’s Banking Associations, which 
co-operate with the Provincial Governors and 
with the Governor-General of Chosen in super- 
vising the operations of the various Associations 
in their respective districts. 


The Oriental Development Company— 


This Company, which was organized in 1908 
engages in agricultural and industrial under- 
takings and participates with the Government- 
General in the development of the natural 
resources of the Peninsula. Oneof its main func- 
tions is to furnish the funds necessary for agri- 
cultural and other activities of the population. 

Up to the year 1917 the O.D.C. limited its 
undertakings to Korea, but in the following year 
extended its sphere of operations to Manchuria, 
North China, and the South Sea Islands. The 


304 THE NEW KOREA 


Company’s authorized capital is 50 million yen. 
The increase in its activities may be measured by 
the fact that it issued debentures to the value of 
36 million yen in 1917, and to the value of 182 
million in 1924, while the total amount of its 
loans grew during the same period from 12 mil- 
lion yen to 148 million. These loans were dis- 
tributed as follows in the year 1924: in Korea 
55 million yen, in Manchuria 72 million, in 
Northern China 10 million, and in the South Sea 
Islands 12 million, the figures being those of the 
nearest million. 


Mutual Credit Associations (Mujin-Ko)— 


Apart from the regular finance organs in 
Korea there exists a system of mutual credit 
transactions on a small scale, known as Mujin. 
Persons associated together for the purpose of 
forming and operating a credit unit of this char- 
acter are known collectively as Mujin-ko. 'The 
system originated in Japan about the year 1387, 
and it is one of the earliest known instances of 
mutual credit societies. 

Within the past few years the operations of 
Mujin-ko have extended rapidly in Korea; and 
in order to insure proper supervision of these 
activities the Chosen Mutual Credit Business 
Ordinance (Mujin rei) was promulgated in 1922. 
The following table shows the principal features 
of the condition and transactions of the Mujin-ko 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA — 305 


during the years indicated. The statistics are 
based upon an annual return which divides the 
year into two six-month terms. The figures are 
to the nearest thousand. 


CONDITION AND Business oF THE MutuaAt Crepit ASSOCIATIONS 


(In thousands of yen. 1 yen=50 cents U. S.) 


Number of 
Repayment Contracts 
Paid-up | Re- Pa Viki her Oh te ee 


Capital | serve Loans 


Year and Term 


ae 


1922.. 2nd Term. 280 6 171 | 2,037 7,007 | 9,044 
1923 Ist Term..} 430 10 395 | 3,316 8,630 | 11,946 
** | Qnd Term. 531 16 554 | 4,264 8,410 | 12,673 
1994 Ist Term..| 759 31 702 | 6,161 | 12,070 | 18,230 
‘* \ 2nd Term.| 840 51 931 | 8,040 | 12,542 | 20,583 
1925.. Ist Term..| 857 87 | 1,088 | 9,479 | 13,452 | 23,021 


I am indebted to Professor Kiyoshi Ogata for 
the following brief account of the Mujin system, 
which is taken verbatim from pages 14 and 15 of 
his elaborate volume, T'he Co-operative Move- 
ment in Japan. 


In the course of its growth, the Mujin system 
blossomed forth in many directions. Before I give 
a detailed explanation of how the Mujim is carried 
on in practice at present, it is necessary to make a 
few preliminary remarks on its various aspects: 

(1) Mujins are usually formed for raising capital 
sums required for business or for private expenditure. 
By the term private expenditure, we are to under- 
stand household expenses (which include taxes, mar- 


306 THE NEW KOREA 


riage expenses, social gatherings, school expenses, 
etc.), repayment of old debts, pilgrimages to temples, 
and holiday trips, etc. 

However, some Mujins are started to raise funds 
for particular public purposes, such as the repair 
of school or temple buildings, bridges or roads, or 
for some charitable institution. Others are formed 
for furthering thrift, and others again for purchas- 
ing houses or land. We shall see that most of these 
objects are the same as those pursued by the modern 
credit societies. 

(2) Most of the Mujins aim at providing their 
members with cash advances, but some aim at provid- 
ing their members with goods, such as clothing. In 
the latter case the Mujin is a form of purchase by 
easy instalments. 

(3) In Mujims there is sometimes a first benefi- 
ciary, for whose special benefit the society is formed, 
and who receives the subscription at the first meeting, 
as an advance without interest, or even as a free 
gift, in return for which he must undertake the col- 
lection and administration of subscriptions while the 
Mujin continues in existence. This means, in effect, 
that the subscriptions of one meeting are given to 
him to alleviate his distress. On the other hand many 
Mujins are purely mutual finance organizations, 
without any special beneficiary. 

(4) The Mujin is also limited in duration. The 
length of one series of Mujin varies from ten months 
to fifty years, according to the membership and the 
frequency of the meetings, three to six years being 
the most usual, but each series may be repeated when 
the first one is ended. 


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF KOREA 3807 


(5) Subscriptions are usually paid in cash, but 
sometimes in kind, or even in labor. 

(6) One of two forms of security is required in 
cases where the Mujin makes advances; either per- 
sonal guarantors or the mortgage of real property. 

(7) One share in a Mujim may be in the names 
of two or more persons, or one member may hold 
more than one share. 

(8) The total amount to be drawn usually ranges 
from 100 yen to 300 yen, but it may be sometimes 
as little as 5 yen, and sometimes as much as 10,000 
yen. 

(9) The amount of one share usually ranges from 
5 yen to 30 yen, but sometimes subscriptions are as 
low as 10 sen and sometimes as high as 100 yen. 
When the subscriptions in Mujins are rather high, 
payment may be arranged by instalments, in which 
case a special collector is employed to go round and 
collect such instalments. 

The Mujin-Ko is usually formed by from thirty 
to fifty persons (sometimes by less than ten, some- 
times by more than five hundred), living in the same 
street, or following the same trade, or worshiping at 
the same temple or shrine. The meetings are usually 
held at a beneficiary’s or founder’s house, or at the 
temple, or at a restaurant, such meetings taking 
place as frequently as twice a month or as rarely 
as twice a year, 


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APPENDICES 


. Treaty of Annexation, Signed on August 22, 1910, 


and Promulgated on August 29th. 


. The Imperial Rescript on Annexation, Promulgated 


on August 29, 1910. 
The Korean Emperor’s Rescript on Cession of Sov- 
ereignty, Promulgated on August 29, 1910. 


- The Imperial Rescript Concerning the Reorganiza- 


tion of the Government-General of Chosen, Pro- 
mulgated on August 19, 1919. 


. The Governor-General’s Instructions to High Offi- 


cials Concerning Administrative Reforms. Issued 
on September 3, 1919. 


FE, The Governor-General’s Proclamation to the People 


of Chosen, Issued on September 10, 1919. 


. The Governor-General’s Address to Provincial Gov- 


ernors. Delivered on October 3, 1919. 


H. The Administrative Superintendent’s Instructions 


to Provincial Governors. Delivered on October 


3, 1919. | 
Rules for Teachers. Notification No. 11, issued 


January 4, 1916, 


309 


APPENDIX 
A 


Treaty of Annexation, Signed on August 22, 1910 and 
Promulgated on the 29 of August 


His Majesty the Emperor of Japan and His Majesty 
the Emperor of Korea, having in view the special and 
close relations between Their respective countries, de- 
siring to promote the common weal of the two nations 
and to assure permanent peace in the Extreme East, 
and being convinced that these objects can be best at- 
tained by the annexation of Korea to the Empire of 
Japan, have resolved to conclude a Treaty of such an- 
nexation, and have for that purpose appointed as Their 
Plenipotentiaries, that is to say :— 

His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, Viscount Masa- 
kata Terauchi, His Resident-General ; 

And His Majesty the Emperor of Korea, Yi Wan 
Yong, His Minister President of State; 

Who, upon mutual conference and deliberation, have 
agreed to the following Articles. 

Article I. His Majesty the Emperor of Korea makes 
complete and permanent cession to His Majesty the 
Emperor of Japan of all rights of sovereignty over the 
whole of Korea. 

Article II. His Majesty the Emperor of Japan ac- 

310 


APPENDIX A 311 


cepts the cession mentioned in the preceding Article, 
and consents to the complete annexation of Korea to 
the Empire of Japan. 

Article III. His Majesty the Emperor of Japan will 
accord to Their Majesties the Emperor and ex-Emperor 
and His Imperial Highness the Crown Prince of Korea 
and Their Consorts and Heirs such titles, dignity, and 
honor as are appropriate to Their respective ranks, 
and sufficient annual grants will be made for the main- 
tenance of such titles, dignity, and honor. 

Article IV. His Majesty the Emperor of Japan will 
also accord appropriate honor and treatment to the 
members of the Imperial House of Korea and their 
heirs other than those mentioned in the preceding 
Article, and the funds necessary for the maintenance of 
such honor and treatment will be granted. 

Article V. His Majesty the Emperor of Japan will 
confer peerages and monetary grants upon those 
Koreans who, on account of meritorious services, are 
regarded as deserving such special recognition. 

Article VI. In consequence of the aforesaid annex- 
ation, the Government of Japan assumes the entire gov- 
ernment and administration of Korea and undertakes 
to afford full protection for the persons and property 
of Koreans obeying the laws there in force, and: to pro- 
mote the welfare of all such Koreans. 

Article VII. The Government of Japan will, so far 
as circumstances permit, employ in the public service of 
Japan in Korea those Koreans who accept the new 
régime loyally and in good faith and who are duly 
qualified for such service. 

Article VIII. This Treaty, having been approved 
by His Majesty the Emperor of Japan and His 


312 APPENDICES 


Majesty the Emperor of Korea, shall take effect from 
the date of its promulgation. 

In faith whereof, the respective Plenipotentiaries 
have signed this Treaty, and have affixed thereto their 


seals, 
[Signatures omitted. ] 


APPENDIX 
B 
Imperial Rescript on Annexation 


We, attaching the highest importance to the main- 
tenance of permanent peace in the Orient and the con- 
solidation of lasting security to Our Empire and finding 
in Korea constant and fruitful sources of complication, 
caused Our Government to conclude in 1905 an Agree- 
ment with the Korean Government by which Korea was 
placed under the protection of Japan in the hope that 
all disturbing elements might thereby be removed and 
peace assured for ever. 

For the four years and over which have since elapsed, 
Our Government have exerted themselves with un- 
wearied attention to promote reforms in the administra- 
tion of Korea, and their efforts have, in a degree, been 
attended with success. But, at the same time, the exist- 
ing régime of government in that country has shown 
itself hardly effective to preserve peace and stability, 
and, in addition, a spirit of suspicion and misgiving 
dominates the whole Peninsula. In order to maintain 
public order and security and to advance the happiness 
and well-being of the people, it has become manifest that 
fundamental changes in the present system of govern- 
ment are inevitable, 

313 


314 APPENDICES 


We, in concert with His Majesty the Emperor of 
Korea, having in view this condition of affairs and being 
equally persuaded of the necessity of annexing the 
whole of Korea to the Empire of Japan in response to 
the actual requirements of the situation, have now ar- 
rived at an arrangement for such permanent annexa- 
tion. 

His Majesty the Emperor of Korea and the members 
of His Imperial House will, notwithstanding the annex- 
ation, be accorded due and appropriate treatment. All 
Koreans, being under Our direct sway, will enjoy grow- 
ing prosperity and welfare, and with assured repose 
and security will come a marked expansion in industry 
and trade. We confidently believe that the new order 
of things now inaugurated will serve as a fresh guaran- 
tee of enduring peace in the Orient. 

We order the establishment of the office of Governor- 
General of Korea. ‘The Governor-General will, under 
our direction, exercise the command of the army and 
navy, and a general control over all administrative 
functions in Korea. We call upon all of Our officials 
and authorities to fulfil their respective duties in appre- 
ciation of Our will, and to conduct the various branches 
of administration in consonance with the requirements 
of the occasion, to the end that Our subjects may long 
enjoy the blessings of peace and tranquillity. 


[His Imprertat Masesty’s Sicn-Manuar] 
[ Privy SEAL. | 
The 29th day of the 8th month of 
the 43rd year of Metji (1910). 


APPENDIX 
C 


The Late Korean Emperor’s Rescript on Cession of 
Sovereignty 


(Promulgated on August 29, 1910) 


Notwithstanding Our unworthiness We succeeded to 
a great and arduous task, and from Our accession to 
the Throne down to the present time We have used Our 
utmost efforts to follow the modern principles of ad- 
ministration. In view, however, of the long-standing 
weakness and deep rooted evils, We are convinced that 
it would be beyond Our power to effect reforms within 
a measurable length of time. Day and night We have 
been deeply concerned about it, and have been at a loss 
to find the means how to rectify the lamentable state 
of things. Should it be left as it goes on, allowing the 
situation to assume more serious phase, We fear that 
We will finally find it impossible to adjust it in any way. 
Under these circumstances We feel constrained to be- 
lieve it wise to entrust Our great task to abler hands 
than Ours, so that efficient measures may be carried out 
and satisfactory results obtained therefrom. Having 
taken the matter into Our serious consideration and 
firmly believing that this is an opportune time for im- 
mediate decision, We have ceded all the rights of sov- 

315 


316 APPENDICES 


ereignty over Korea to His Majesty the Emperor of 
Japan in whom we have placed implicit confidence and 
with whom we have shared joy and sorrow from long 
time since, in order to consolidate the peace of the 
Extreme East and ensure the welfare of our people. 

You, all the people, are expected not to give your- 
selves up to commotion, appreciating the present na- 
tional situation as well as the trend of the times, but 
‘to enjoy the happiness and blessings by pursuing your 
occupations in peace and obeying the enlightened new 
administration of the Empire of Japan. We have de- 
cided to take this step by no means disregarding your 
intérest but in our eagerness to relieve you of this de- 
plorable situation. We command you, therefore, to 
take due cognizance of our wishes, 


APPENDIX 
D 


Imperial Rescript Concerning the Reorganization of 
the Government-General of Chosen 


(Promulgated on August 19, 1919) 


We have ever made it Our aim to promote the se- 
curity and welfare of Our territory of Korea, and to 
extend to the native population of that territory as 
Our beloved subjects a fair and impartial treatment in 
all respects, to the end that they may without distinc- 
tion of persons lead their lives in peace and content- 
ment. We are persuaded that the state of development 
at which the general situation has now arrived calls for 
certain reforms in the administrative organization of 
the Government-General of Korea, and We issue Our 
Imperial command that such reforms be put into oper- 
ation. ‘The measures thus taken are solely designed to 
facilitate the working of administration and to secure 
good and enlightened government in pursuance of Our 
settled policy, and in fulfilment of the altered require- 
ments of the country. Specially in view of the termina- 
tion of the war in Europe and of the rapid changes in 
the conditions of the world do We consider it highly 
desirable that every effort should be made for the ad- 

317 


318 APPENDICES 


vancement of the national resources and the well-being 
of the people. We call upon all public functionaries 
concerned to exercise their best endeavors in obedience 
to Our wishes in order that a benign rule may be assured 
to Korea, and that the people, diligent and happy in 
attending to their respective vocations, may enjoy the 
blessing of peace and contribute to the growing pros- 
perity of the country. 


APPENDIX 
1D) 


Governor-General’s Instruction to High Officials Con- 
cerning Administrative Reforms 


(Issued on Sept. 3, 1919) 


The main policy of the administration of Chosen is 
clearly embodied in the Imperial rescript issued on the 
occasion of the annexation of Chosen in 1910. The 
progress made by Chosen since she was brought under 
Japanese rule, in education, industry, communications, 
sanitation, and other directions, has been remarkable, 
thanks to the efforts of those who have been responsible 
for the administration of the country. It cannot be 
denied, however, that during the ten years that have 
elapsed since the annexation of Chosen the general af- 
fairs in the Peninsula have undergone such change that 
the Government has thought it advisable to frame and 
promulgate a new organization of the Government- 
General of Chosen. 

The purport of the revised official organization is to 
enlarge the application of the principle of universal 
brotherhood, which is the keynote of the Imperial re- 
script recently issued. The official organization has 
been altered in such a way that either a civil or military 
man may be appointed at the head of the administra- 

319 


320 APPENDICES 


tion in Chosen. The gendarmerie system has been abol- 
ished and replaced by the ordinary police system. 
Further, an improvement has been introduced in the 
matter of the eligibility for appointment of Koreans as 
officials. The whole aim and object of the revised or- 
ganization is, in short, to give more happiness and 
satisfaction than is the case at present by bringing 
their treatment socially and politically on the same 
footing as the Japanese. 

I am not well conversant with all the “fiber of affairs 
in Chosen and will have to depend on your guidance and 
suggestions in carrying out the object of the Imperial 
rescript. At the same time, I would like to call your 
attention to the following points in regard to the ad- 
ministration of Chosen. | 

All officials of the Government-General should do 
their best to discharge their duties in a conscientious 
and impartial manner, so that the public may be in- 
duced to rely on them. AL! official routine should be 
simplified and made easier, avoiding red-tape as far as 
possible. The rights of the people should be respected, 
and the freedom of press and speech should not be inter- 
fered with unless it is distinctly calculated to be inimi- 
cal to the preservation of peace. Special attention 
should be paid to the improvement in education, indus- 
try, communcations, police, sanitation, and social works, 
as well as in general administrative and judicial mat- 
ters, so that the welfare of the Koreans may be ad- 
vanced with the ultimate object of the establishment of 
local autonomous government. 

What is required of the officials who are charged with 
the administration of Chosen is that they should ac- 
quaint themselves with the general trend of ideas among 


APPENDIX E 321 


the Koreans and adopt a method of administration 
which will be in keeping with the requirements of the 
times. In other words, efforts should be made so that 
the political foundations may be placed on a firm, se- 
cure basis. ‘The Koreans and Japanese must be treated 
alike as members of the same family. If the officials in 
Chosen try to live up to the ideals set forth in the 
Imperial rescript, there is no doubt that the Koreans 
will be induced to recognize the benefit of Japanese rule. 


APPENDIX 
F 


Governor-General’s Proclamation to the People of 


Chosen 
(Issued on September 10, 1919) 


On my assumption of duty as Governor-General, the 
organization of the Government-General was revised. 
Accordingly, I desire to address a few words to the 
people at large. 

That the administrative policy of Chosen should be 
based on the great principle of placing the Japanese 
and Korean peoples on an equal footing and should 
aim at promoting their interests and happiness, as well 
as at securing the permanent peace of the Far East, 
was determined upon at the very beginning. Those suc- 
cessively charged with the administration of this Penin- 
sula duly appreciated its meaning and strove to improve 
and develop its people and resources. The people, too, 
diligently engaged in their business. It is now recog- 
nized at home and abroad that the present development 
of Chosen came as the result of their joint efforts. It 
goes without saying, however, that all administrative 
institutions must be planned and executed in conformity 
with the standard of popular living and the progress of 
the times, so that appropriate measures may be carried 

322 


APPENDIX F 323 


out and popular desires prevented from taking a wrong 
course. The times have progressed so much and civili- 
zation too that it is difficult to draw a comparison be- 
tween this and former days. Since the great European 
War was brought to an end, moreover, the condition of 
the world and human psychology have undergone a 
marked change. In deference to this hard fact, His 
Majesty’s Government, through a revision in the Or- 
ganic Regulations, enlarged the sphere of appointment 
for the Governor-General, reformed the police system, 
and made such provision for simplification and prompt 
transaction of state business and the diffusion of en- 
lightened administration as to bring them in perfect 
accord with the forward movement of this age. On 
assuming my present duty by Imperial order I deter- 
mined in my own mind to pursue faithfully the State 
policy and vindicate the spirit of annexation. I am 
determined to superintend officials under my control 
and encourage them to put forth greater efforts to act 
in a fairer and juster way, and promote the facilities 
of the people and the unhindered attainment of the 
people’s desires by dispensing with all formality. Full 
consideration will be given to the appointment and 
treatment of Koreans so as to secure the right men for 
the right places, and what in Korean institutions and 
old customs is worthy of adoption will be adopted as 
a means of government. I also hope to introduce re- 
form in the different branches of administrative activ- 
ity, and to enforce local self-government at the proper 
opportunity, and thereby ensure stability for the people 
and enhance their general well-being. It is most de- 
sirable that the government and governed throw open 
their hearts and minds to each other and combine their 


324 APPENDICES 


efforts to advance civilization in Chosen, solidify its 
foundation of enlightened government, and thus answer 
His Majesty’s benevolent solicitude. If anybody is 
found guilty of unwarrantably refractory language or 
action, of misleading the popular mind, and of impeding 
the maintenance of public peace, he will be met with 
relentless justice. May it be that the people at large 
will place reliance on all this. 
September 10, 1919. 
Baron Maxoro Saito, 
Governor-General of Chosen. 


APPENDIX 
G 


Governor-General’s Address to Provincial Governors 


(Delivered on October 3, 1919) 


Gentlemen :—I am very glad to have opportunity at 
this meeting of Provincial Governors to speak to you of 
my policy and to listen to your opinions concerning the 
administration of Chosen. 

When I assumed my duty last month, I made up my 
mind to establish in this country a civilized administra- 
tion by conforming my policy to the idea of His 
Majesty that both Koreans and Japanese should be 
treated as equals. As you are already well aware, I 
issued some time ago an instruction to all the officials 
serving in the Government-General and its affiliated 
offices. Since that time the Government-General itself 
has been, and is, endeavoring to carry out various im- 
portant measures. Gentlemen, I do not doubt that 
you also have carried out or are intending to carry 
out these reforms, and are leading your subordinates in 
the same spirit as myself. I earnestly desire you to 
realize the administrative reforms by entering into the 
spirit of my instruction more thoroughly than ever. 
As to concrete plans and measures to be followed for 
effecting the reforms, the Administrative Superintend- 

325 


326 APPENDICES 


ent will separately give you instructions. By observing 
these instructions you are expected to introduce a new 
spirit and new life into the government of this country 
and attain good results. 

The most important task to be accomplished today 
is the adjustment and completion of the police organs 
and the maintenance of public peace and order. How- 
ever, at this transition time, when the replacement of 
gendarmes with ordinary police is being effected, it is 
very difficult to expand the police force. Besides, ar- 
rangements for various police organs have not as yet 
been completed. I can well sympathize with you in your 
anxiety and trouble, standing, as you do, in this diffi- 
cult situation, but I ask you to ensure the peace of 
the localities under your jurisdiction and make the 
people under your administration repose full confidence 
in thé authorities, by maintaining satisfactory and 
smooth relations with all the public offices interested in 
this task, and by checkmating the activities of agitators 
through taking the best possible measures. 

This year’s drought in places north of the central 
part of this Peninsula was so severe as to be unprece- 
dented in recent years. In consequence, in these places 
only very poor crops have been obtained and many 
people are suffering from scarcity of food. To study 
measures for relieving them, a committee has been spe- 
cially organized and general plans for doing so have 
been decided on. Gentlemen, you are asked to follow 
these plans in the main and leave no room for criticism 
in assuring the sufferers in affected localities of safe 
living by taking such measures as are appropriate to 
local conditions. 

The world’s thoughts and ideas are in an unsettled 


APPENDIX G 327 


state due to the great European War. In these days 
it is of the utmost importance to restrain our people 
from resorting to thoughtless and harmful acts, to in- 
duce them calmly to pursue their respective occupa- 
tions, and to allow them freedom to make orderly 
progress, for all this is the way by which the State can 
attain a healthy development. Especially is it im- 
portant in Chosen, where disturbances have broken out 
one after another since March last, where wild rumors 
still continue to be in the air, and where the popular 
mind is still disturbed, to free the people from anxiety 
and lead them in a right direction. 

I hope and desire that, together with your subor- 
dinates, you will put forth greater efforts than hitherto 
to open up a new and happy era in the administration 
of this Peninsula by adapting your course to the prog- 
ress of the times. 


APPENDIX 
H 


Administrative Superintendent’s Instructions to Pro- 
vincial Governors 


(Delivered on October 3, 1919) 


Gentlemen :—With regard to the reform of the ad- 
ministration of Chosen, the Governor-General, on the 
assumption of his duty, showed in his instruction to 
the officials of the Government-General and its affiliated 
offices the fundamental points in his policy. So I trust 
that you are already endeavoring steadily to put them 
into practice. I now desire to call your attention to 
the essential measures, which the Government-General 
has already carried out since its reorganization or is 
about to carry out. 

In order to realize the Imperial idea of placing Jap- 
anese and Koreans on the footing of equality and reap 
the fruit of fair and enlightened administration by the 
co-operation of the Government and people, the Gov- 
ernment-General has considered it urgently necessary 
to abolish the discrimination hitherto existing between 
Japanese and Korean officials in their treatment, and 
to open the way for the appointment to official posts 
of men of talent and ability by giving them very good 
treatment. ‘The Government-General has accordingly 
decided to make the salaries of Korean officials equal to 
those of Japanese officials. Regulations concerning 

328 


APPENDIX H 329 


this measure will shortly be published. Also, the power 
of Korean judges and public procurators has been ex- 
tended to the same degree as that of their Japanese 
colleagues, while the posts of principals of common 
schools hitherto exclusively given to Japanese will here- 
after be given to Koreans too. For officials in general, 
in view of the present state of society, the Government 
is prepared to give them better treatment as far as 
its finances will allow. The Government is also pre- 
pared to abolish complicated restrictions concerning 
appointments, and regulations concerning promotions, 
so that the right men may be found in the right posts 
and all officials may serve the State with increased effi- 
ciency and in a spirit of fresh vigor. 

One way of promoting the welfare of the governed is 
to eradicate the evil of formality and simplify the trans- 
action of official business. In this respect it is regret- 
table that there was something needing improvement in 
the administration of Chosen. In addition, due to the 
progress of the times and the economic development of 
the Peninsula, the business of government offices has 
been rapidly augmenting, strengthening the desire for 
its prompt handling and settlement. In view of this, 
the Government has recognized the necessity of speedily 
introducing improvement in the transaction of official 
business. To do so, the Government has set aside the 
principle hitherto pursued of centralizing power in the 
Government-General in favor of that of distributing it 
among local offices. In conformity with this idea the 
Government-General will shortly adjust itself and ex- 
tend as far as possible the power entrusted to local 
officials. For instance, the transaction of affairs re- 
lating to the appointment of retirement of lower class 


330 APPENDICES 


officials in local offices and the distribution of bonuses 
among them, as well as of affairs relating to traveling 
by subordinates on official business, has already been 
entrusted to Provincial Governors. Rules relating to 
the enforcement of the Myen (village) system have 
been revised and nearly all business concerning it has 
also been transferred to their hands. Further, Pro- 
vincial Governors have been given the power of appoint- 
ing Councillors. Besides, it is the intention of the 
Government-General to empower Prefects and District 
Magistrates to deal with matters relating to the exemp- 
tion or reduction of ground-rent for State lands after 
they have obtained the approval of the Provincial Gov- 
ernor of their localities. The authorities also intend to 
give District Magistrates certain power to deal with 
offences relating to the payment of indirect taxes with- 
out taking the trouble of obtaining the approval of 
their superiors to do so. All these measures already 
taken or about to be taken are aimed at the elimination 
of red-tapeism, the adjustment of complicated laws and 
regulations, and the simplification of business transac- 
tion, so as to lessen as far as possible the inconvenience 
felt by the people at large. You are asked, therefore, 
gentlemen, to appreciate this idea, and, in dealing with 
affairs coming under your domain, give to them due 
deliberation and transact them in a spirit of responsi- 
bility. 

It is essential for a government to establish a thor- 
ough understanding between the government and the 
people governed, and to carry out such administration 
as is suitable to local conditions. Gentlemen, you should 
endeavor, by directing your subordinates in a proper 
way, to make the people under you thoroughly under- 


APPENDIX H 331 


stand the ideas of the Government and appreciate the 
motives of the law and administrative measures adopted. 
At the same time you should not neglect to know what 
the people desire or complain of and inform the Gov- 
ernment of what they think. This is a matter, the im- 
portance of which is self-evident. Nevertheless, it is 
an evil common to all ages that this is not well done 
in practice. Now let us consider how it was in Chosen. 
As a matter of fact, there was something lacking in this 
respect. People did not fully understand and appreci- 
ate the aims and motives of the laws and regulations 
enacted, or the spirit of the proclamations and instruc- 
tions issued. For this reason, in not a few instances 
the enforcement of administrative measures was much 
hampered and excited the ill-feeling of the people in 
general, Gentlemen, it was in order to avoid the repe- 
tition of such blunders that the Government-General 
convened to a meeting here some days ago leading 
Koreans in the provinces recommended by yourselves, 
and explained to them the motives and aims of the ad- 
ministrative reforms undertaken. The distribution 
throughout the country of the Governor-General’s 
proclamation and instruction, the dispatch of a num- 
ber of high officials to the provinces on a mission of 
inspection of popular conditions, and the invitation of 
opinion by the Government from the Central Council, 
which hitherto existed as a nominal advisory body only 
—all these were done by the Government with the pur- 
pose of realizing the idea mentioned. Gentlemen, I ask 
you to convey this idea to your subordinates, to guide 
and help the people under your administration, and to 
make them thoroughly understand the policy of the 
Government. I also ask you to learn clearly and fully 


832 APPENDICES 


their mental condition and endeavor to take fitting 
measures to give them satisfaction. 

In order to advance the capabilities of the people in 
the provinces, improve their habits, and enable them 
to take part in the Government, the Government recog- 
nizes the necessity of carrying out a system of local 
self-government. The Director of the Internal Affairs 
Bureau is investigating and studying the subject, so 
that some time in the future the Government will an- 
nounce a concrete plan thereanent. You are requested 
to submit to me your views, if you have any, without 
the least reservation. 

The police system has been reformed with the reor- 
ganization of the Government-General, the police and 
gendarmes being now separated, each having its own 
proper duties. The police power is now in your hands. 
Accordingly you must remember that you have now 
greater responsibility than hitherto in maintaining 
peace and order in the localities under your jurisdic- 
tion. I desire that, by encouraging your subordinates, 
you will achieve great improvement in the administra- 
tion of police affairs. The police being in direct con- 
tact with the people, and having as their duty their 
protection and control, their acts and behavior not only 
concern the interests of the people to a large extent, 
but often become the cause of criticism against the 
Government-General régime. I desire you, gentlemen, 
to be careful in the direction of the police officers under 
you, so that they may commit no blunders but uphold 
their prestige. 

The popular mind is still disturbed in Chosen and it 
is not impossible that the situation may take on a seri- 
ous aspect. Taking advantage of this state of things, 


APPENDIX H 833 


wicked men are secretly at work endeavoring to incite 
the masses and disturb the order of society by spread- 
ing wild and seditious rumors. In consequence, law- 
abiding people are menaced in regard to life and prop- 
erty, suffering therefrom much loss. Gentlemen, you 
should exercise strict control over those wicked men, 
and endeavor to free peaceful people from the fear of 
groundless rumors, give them assurance of the security 
of life and property, and set the popular mind at ease. 

With regard to the control of disturbances and sim- 
ilar occurrences, you should try to use the police organs 
to the best advantage, and, by paying the most circum- 
spect attention, should try to prevent such from taking 
place. You should, however, be fully prepared promptly 
to suppress any untoward occurrence that may take 
place. | 

It is necessary to extend medical and sanitary organs 
and to complete their equipments in order to prevent 
the outbreak of epidemics and to give people suffering 
from diseases prompt and efficient medical attention. 
It is a measure calculated to give assurance to the 
popular mind. In this branch of the Government work, 
thanks to the splendid efforts put forth by our prede- 
cessors, some excellent arrangements have already been 
made in this country, there being in existence nineteen 
charity hospitals and more than one hundred public 
doctors. Nevertheless, in consideration of the progress 
of the times, the Government has recognized the neces- 
sity of introducing improvement in the work as far as 
its finances allow. The authorities are now deliberating 
plans to establish more charity hospitals, appoint more 
public doctors, and increase the force of sanitary ex- 
perts attached to provincial governments. You are 


334 APPENDICES 


asked to enter into this idea of the Government and 
leave no room for criticism in promoting the hygienic 
welfare of the general public and spreading the benefit 
of medical relief. 

The method of punishment by flogging has long been 
practised in Chosen and was considered a measure suit- 
able to the standard of the people as a preventive of 
minor offences. So the Government has continued it 
against Koreans only. It is, however, a method of pun- 
ishment at variance with the modern idea aiming at the 
reformation of erring people. For this reason, the 
Government will shortly abolish it, substituting for it 
imprisonment with labor or fines, so as to conform to 
the progress of the times. 

The Government-General since its establishment has 
earnestly encouraged industry in this country with the 
result that a fine development has been attained. The 
development of industry is to be achieved on the basis 
of experience as well as of manners and customs. Its 
pace should not be forcibly accelerated by the launch- 
ing of novel ventures or by the introduction of sudden 
changes. So, in improving industrial undertakings and 
institutions already under way, you should be very 
careful in selecting what is good and rejecting what is 
bad, so as to assure their healthy progress. 

Education is the means by which the human intellect 
is developed and a virtuous character built up. In 
view of the present condition of this country, the Gov- 
ernment recognizes the urgent necessity of spreading 
education among the people by advancing the standard 
of educational organs and enriching their equipment. 
Accordingly, the Government is now deliberating plans 
for the extension of the school course for Korean chil- 


APPENDIX H 335 


dren, improvement of school curriculums, increase in 
schools, and the establishment of new organs for higher 
education, as well as the improvement of those already 
existing. But no good result in education can be 
achieved through the completion of its system and ar- 
rangement, unless it is reformed and improved in spirit 
and conduct. I desire you, gentlemen, to be very care- 
ful in the selection and superintendence of teachers, and 
to endeavor to improve the method of teaching. 

It is scarcely necessary to say that the knowledge 
of the Korean language is very important to officials in 
discharging their duties. Accordingly, in order to 
encourage the study of the language by them, the Gov- 
ernment-General intends to find a way for granting 
special liberal allowances to those mastering it. Espe- 
cially great is the importance of the mastery of the 
language by police officers and officials serving in pro- 
vincial governments, as they daily come in contact with 
the Korean people. I ask you to communicate this idea 
of the Government to your subordinates and induce 
them to take up the study of Korean in earnest. 

With regard to the maintenance of official discipline, 
the preceding heads of the Government-General fre- 
quently issued instructions, so that I do not doubt that 
you are always paying due attention to the subject. 
I see, however, that the morality of society is very loose 
of late, and there is a tendency for its bad effects to 
appear among Government officials in general. I regret 
that I frequently hear of various unpleasant affairs 
taking place among them. I ask you to drive home in 
the minds of officials under you that they are expected 
to be examples for the people at large and to maintain 
the dignity and prestige due to their positions. 


336 APPENDICES 


Since my arrival here, I have been working hard, 
together with gentlemen under me, with a view to ob- 
taining some good results from the new régime. It 1s, 
however, less than two months since it was inaugurated. 
The new policy of the Governor-General is not as yet 
thoroughly realized, and those measures already taken 
for its realization have not as yet borne fruit. All 
this I regret very much, but I shall continue to put 
forth my best efforts in the discharge of my duty with 
the purpose of bringing into the administration of this 
country a new and happy feature. Gentlemen, I be- 
seech you to remember the great responsibility reposed 
in you, to appreciate the motives and ideas of the new 
régime, and to discharge your duty with courage and 
without flinching. The administrative reform we have 
taken up, however, must be preceded by circumspect 
deliberation and study, as well as by the amendment of 
existing institutions. In addition, funds must be pro- 
vided. Unless we are given time, it is impossible for 
us to achieve our desired end. Together with you I 
wish to go on our work slowly but steadily, thinking 
deeply of the present and the future. Above all, I am 
determined not to be swayed by the superficial criti- 
cism of the public, and not to be too hasty in endeavor- 
ing to reap the fruit of our labor, so that we may not 
commit blunders by acting thoughtlessly. Gentlemen, 
many of you have lived long in Chosen and are well 
versed in affairs and in the conditions in your localities. 
I desire you to take the present opportunity to submit 
to me your views without the least reservation, and 
thereby contribute to the reform of the administration 
of this country. 


APPENDIX 
r 


Rules for Teachers: 


(Notification No. 11, January 4, 1916) 


I. The fostering of loyalty and filial piety shall be 
made the radical principle of education, and the cul- 
tivation of moral sentiments shall be given special at- 
tention. Loyalty and filial piety form the basis of 
moral principle and are the natural sentiments of sub- 
jects and sons. Acting on this basic principle and 
natural sentiment, the actions of all will be restrained 
within the bounds of propriety. It is only what may 
be expected of a loyal and dutiful man, who knows what 
is demanded of a subject and a son that he should be 
faithful to his duties, and manage his household with 
thrift and diligence, thus enabling him to establish him- 
self in society, succeed in business, and contribute to 
the enhancement of the prosperity of the country. It 
is, therefore, required of persons in education that they 
train the moral sentiments of their pupils on the basis 
of loyalty and filial piety, so that they may grow up 
imbued with the desire and power to meet the require- 
ments of their country. 

II. Practical use shall be made the aim in imparting 
knowledge and art. The object of education is to raise 
up practical men able to meet the requirements of the 

337 


338 APPENDICES 


State. How can it be expected that a man will estab- 
lish himself and succeed in business, thus advancing the 
national interests, and do that which the State requires 
of him, if he gives himself to vain argument and be- 
comes thereby of little use to the world, or if he is 
averse to industry and labor and neglects the practice 
thereof? It is therefore, required of persons engaged 
in education that they pay their primary attention to 
the principle of utilization of knowledge, the promotion 
of the national welfare, and to the imparting of useful 
knowledge, so that practical persons to meet the na- 
tional requirements will be found to be the rule, not the 
exception, in the Empire. 

III. Robust physical development shall be striven 
for. Robust physical development is necessary in order 
to carry through undertakings, while the development 
of the national strength also depends much upon the 
exertions of the people constituting the country. How 
can it be expected of a person of weak physique and 
unfit for work, to get along in the world, carry on 
business, and thereby contribute to the development of 
the country? It is, therefore, required of persons en- 
gaged in education always to bear this in mind, so that 
their pupils may be brought up strong and healthy. 

The above-mentioned three items are the essential 
principles of education. The fate of a country depends 
upon the quality of the people constituting it; and the 
quality of the people depends upon the morality, abil- 
ity, and physique possessed by them. Whether the edu- 
cation being given is elementary or higher, common or 
special, persons engaging in it shall always bear these 
principles in mind, and give their whole energy to the 
realization of them, so that the object of education may 


APPENDIX I 339 


be attained. With regard to the ways and means by 
which these principles are to be realized: special atten- 
tion shall be paid to the following nine rules: 

(1) Education shall be adapted to the characteris- 
tics of the pupils and to the circumstances in which 
they are placed. It is necessary for teachers to make 
themselves acquainted with the characteristics of their 
pupils and with the circumstances in which they are 
placed, so that they may give suitable education 
adapted thereto. Education desultorily given without 
first studying such characteristics and circumstances, 
will not only fall short of attaining its object, but some- 
times may even prove harmful. It is, therefore, re- 
quired of teachers that they make themselves well ac- 
quainted with the age, physique, disposition and habits 
of the pupils under them, thereby deriving suggestions 
as to the method of imparting education to them. Be- 
sides the disposition and circumstances of the pupils, 
teachers shall also make themselves acquainted with 
their individual personality, so that they may give to 
each the education exactly needed by them, just as a 
physician gives his patients those medicines required 
for curing their disease. Education limited to class- 
rooms, where it is given in common, neglecting the spe- 
cial direction and assistance required by pupils, whether 
in common or individually, leaves much to be desired. 

(2) Education shall aim at adapting itself to the 
needs of the times and to the conditions of the people. 
The object of education is not to be attained by being 
restrained within conventional forms, or given in a 
careless manner. ‘Teachers are, therefore, required first 
to lay down established plans and arrangements with 
regard to the training of their pupils, whether moral, 


340 APPENDICES 


intellectual, or physical, so that nothing is left undone 
in devising methods of education. 

(3) Instruction shall be given so that the national 
characteristics are fostered. In imparting education, 
the developing of the national characteristics shall be 
made the object, and the cultivation of virtue be striven 
for, by paying special attention to instruction given. 
Not to mention hours for lessons, or for practical train- 
ing, every opportunity that may present itself shall be 
seized by teachers to give their pupils suitable instruc- 
tion, so that pupils may be brought up to behave them- 
selves leniently towards others, but strictly towards. 
themselves, to value order and to observe discipline, to 
be thrifty and industrious, and honest and trustworthy. 
In this way, these qualities may become their second 
nature, so that when grown up they may discharge in 
full their duties as people of the Empire. 

(4) Education given shall be uniform in system, and 
practice shall be repeated, so that pupils may grasp 
what they have learned. In order to make secure the 
efforts of teaching, the object of each lesson shall be 
made clear, a system followed, and proper order ob- 
served. At the same time, care must be taken to estab- 
lish connection and unity between the lessons, so that 
each shall be dependent on, and not counteract the 
other. In case different teachers give different branches 
of a lesson, attention shall be especially given to this 
point, and conference between them held, so that con- 
nection is established between them, and the pupils en- 
abled to receive thoroughly connected teaching. It shall 
not be the aim to impart a great deal of knowledge or 
art, as it is essential that the pupils be made fully to 
understand and make their own that which they are 


APPENDIX I 341 


taught. It is, therefore, required that they be given 
as ample opportunity as possible for repetition of, and 
exercise in, what they are taught. In this way, it is 
hoped the knowledge imparted to them may be firmly 
implanted in their minds, a perfect system established, 
and free use of that knowledge made by the pupils with 
promptitude. 

(5) Education shall be given so as to arouse the 
interest of pupils in their studies and thus induce in 
them the habit of voluntarily pursuing them. On the 
occasion of giving a lesson, it is necessary to use suit- 
able methods, so that pupils may be interested, and 
brought thoroughly to understand what they are 
taught, and thus be led to enjoy their studies. In 
teaching, pupils shall not only have knowledge and art 
imparted to them, but they shall also be taught the 
method of study. Besides, in teaching the practical 
side of subjects, endeavor shall be made to induce pu- 
pils to feel an interest in it and to pursue it with 
pleasure, so that they may acquire the habit of in- 
dustry and the taste for labor. In this way, it is 
hoped from the oversight of teachers, they will not 
lapse into idleness, but keep up the habit of self-training 
and push onward in their calling. 

(6) Attention shall be paid to physical development, 
and along with gymnastics suitable athletic sports shall 
be encouraged. It is necessary for a person to have 
a strong physique in order to get on in the world and 
succeed in business. Gymnastics well adapted to the 
stages of physical development shall, therefore, be 
practised, and exercises or pastimes for the seasons and 
locality encouraged, so that the body of the pupils may 
be hardened, their mental strength invigorated and they 


342 APPENDICES 


may be the possessors of physique able to stand the 
changes of the seasons, and rise superior to the hard- 
ships they may experience. It shall also be an object 
to induce pupils to volunteer for physical training, not 
only during their school life, but also after that is over, 
so that their physique may continually develop. 

(7) Teachers shall exhibit to their pupils love and 
dignity, and make themselves models for them. Dig- 
nity is necessary for a teacher in facing his pupils, 
because with it he is able to give life to his teaching and 
training, and thereby attain the objects of education. 
At the same time there must be warm love and deep 
affection to enable teachers to maintain friendly rela- 
tions with their pupils, and thus exercise sufficient in- 
fluence over them and bring them up satisfactorily. 
What they desire of their pupils, teachers shall show 
by their own example and by acting up to their words 
will make themselves fit models for imitation. 

(8) Teachers shall have a firm purpose, and always 
strive after mental cultivation. Education does not 
look for immediate results, as its aim is far-reaching. 
Teachers shall, therefore, regard education as an hon- 
orable profession, and become firmly attached to it, so 
that they may strive always for its final aim and be 
ready to die, if needed, martyrs for that profession. 
Teachers shall also endeavor to comprehend the seri- 
ousness of their duties, so that they may experience a 
sense of failure if they find the culture possessed by 
them falling short of their high calling, and they will 
be urged thereby to faithful prosecution of their studies 
and to the proper application of experience, and to 
strive for the expansion of their acquirements, and so 
to attain the desired improvement and progress in 


APPENDIX I 343 
themselves and the faithful execution of the duties ex- 
pected of them. 

(9) Teachers shall be ready to keep on friendly 
terms with one another, and, further, to extend their 
friendship to elders of the local community, so that 
they may exert a good influence over them. Education 
is closely related to social matters, so that it is difficult 
to attain its objects by school education alone. It, 
therefore, follows that teachers must keep on friendly 
terms with one another, and advise each other with 
will, so that all may be kept from swerving from the 
path of duty, a good esprit de corps established among 
the schools, and pupils surrounded with the best pos- 
sible influence. They shall also keep on good terms 
with elders of the local community, and acting, in con- 
cert with them, endeavor to accomplish the object of 
education. At the same time, they shall keep in view 
the fact that they are leaders of the community, and so 
endeavor to influence and reform it. 

In short, teachers shall thoroughly master the funda~ 
mental principles of the education of the Empire, and. 
endeavor to bring that education into realization, put- 
ting forth their strength in all sincerity, and by gain- 
ing the fruitful result of education contribute to the 
desired development of the Empire. All conduct in 
life is to be based on sincerity and endeavor. It is only 
by acting with sincerity and endeavor that pupils can 
be trained to be loyal, and the Imperial behest be 
obeyed. With regard to education in Chosen, I, the 
Governor-General, depend greatly upon those in re- 
sponsible positions, and so lay down herewith the daily 
rules for teachers, so that what is desired of them shall 
be quite clearly set out before them. 


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Pave 
Us SA URAL 
GR) shee” 


4 re 





INDEX 


AGRICULTURE: agricultural 
associations, 253; agricul- 
tural labor, 256; agricul- 


tural loans, 250; area 
under cultivation, 241; 
crops, classified, 241, 


value of, 244, yield of, 
242, 248; financing the 
farmers, 249; husbandry, 
improvement of, 252; irri- 
gation, 253; land tenure, 
246; model farm, 252; of- 
ficial encouragement of, 
251; sericulture, 244. 
ANNEXATION BY JAPAN: I, 
2, 55, seq., 65, seq., treaty 
of, 8310, Imperial Rescript 
on, 818, Korean Em- 
peror’s Rescript on, 315. 
ADMINISTRATION, Loca: see 
Government Organization, 
Local Administration. 
Arryosul, T. 71. 


BankKINnG: Bank of Chosen, 
300; Chosen Industrial 
Bank, 3802; historical, 
294; mutual credit asso- 
ciations, 304; ordinary 


banks, 302; Oriental De- 
velopment Company, 303; 
People’s Banking Associa- 
tions, 298, 802; statistics, 
299, 801, 302, 305. 
Buskirk, Dr. J. D. Van: on 
the climate of Korea, 20. 


CuIno-JAPANESE War: 86, 
seq. 

CHINESE SUZERAINTY: 
seq. 

CHosEN (commonly called 
Korea) see under Korea. 
Civiz ADMINIsTRATORS: their 
qualities compared with 
those of military officers, 

67, 68. 

CLIMATE: 20. 

ComMERcE: bullion, 285; 
currency, 278 seq.; ex- 
ports, classified, 287, 
value of, 284; foreign, 
distribution of, 286, value 
of, 284; government ex- 
penditure to foster, 292; 
imports, classified, 289, 
value of, 284. 


36, 


345 


346 


CoMMUNICATIONS: maritime, 
34; postal, telegraph, tele- 
phone, wireless, 34, seq., 
railways, 27, seqg.; roads, 
31; streets, 32. 

Courts oF Law: 152. 

Crime: age-distribution of 
criminals, 164; female 
criminals, 164, 165; first 
offenders, 165; juvenile 
criminals, 164; number of 
criminals, 164; recidivism, 
165. 


Deet, Nationa: 184-187. 

DeEPENDENCIES: their gov- 
ernment compared — with 
that of independent states, 
8-17. 

District EpucaTIoNaL 
Bopres: 133, 1384, 201, 
202. 

DoNnaTION, THE IMPERIAL: 
66, 128-125, 201. 


Economic D&EVELOPMENT: 
historical, 287-242; see 
further under Agriculture, 
Forestry, Fishery, Min- 
ing, Commerce, Manu- 
factures, Banking. 

EpvucaTion: agricultural, 
194; commercial, 194; de- 
velopment of system, 191, 
seq.; District Educational 
Bodies for Koreans, 133, 
134, 201, 202; expendi- 
ture on, 80, 81, 210; fi- 
nancing of, 208, seq.; 


INDEX 


girls’, 194; Imperial Re- 
script on, 188; industrial, 
202; kindergartens, 203; 
objects of, 188, seg.; pres- 
ent state of system, 197, 
seqg.; racial co-education, 
198; School Associations 
for Japanese, 181-133, 
202; schools, classification 
of, 199-202; curriculum, 
204; fees, 210; manage- 
ment of, 201, number of, 
202, private, supervision 
of, 195, religion in, 206- 
208, students in, number 
of, 203; statistics of, 200- 
208; teachers, number of, 
202, rules for, 237, seq.; 
salaries of, 205, techno- 
logical, 194; text-books, 
195; university, 80, 203. 


Exports: see under Com- 
merce. 
FINANCE, GOVERNMENT: 


budget, 173; expenditures 
of Government - General, 
174, objects of, 181-1838; 
government undertakings, 
178-181; historical sum- 
mary, 169-173; monopo- 
lies, 178; national debt, 
184-187; reforms, 171- 
173; revenue of, 174, 
sources of, 175-181. 
FIsHERY. 
Finance, Loca: see under 
Government Organization, 
Local Administration. 


INDEX 


FisHery: aquatic products, 
experiments in, 269; en- 
couragement and regula- 
tion of, 267; fishing indus- 
try, development and 
progress of, 270. 


Frioaeine: abolition of, 80; 


143. 

Forestry: 74, 75, 179; af- 
forestation, 264-266; Ar- 
bor Day, 265; condition 
of the forests, 262; his- 
torical, 260-262; seedling 
plantations, 265. 


GENDARMERIE: abolition of, 
80. 

GovERNMENT:  self-govern- 
ment and colonial govern- 
ment compared, 10-17: 
dangers arising from bad 
government, 62; parlia- 
mentary government fall- 
ing into disrepute, 16. 

GovERNMENT FINANCE: see 
Finance. 

GOVERNMENT - GENERAL: 
character of during early 
years, 56, 68; established, 
55; expenditure on vari- 
ous objects, 80; organic 
regulations, 77, 85, 86, 
99; organization of, 83- 
107; policy of, 78-82, 93, 
96; problems confronting 
it, 66, 89; reforms, 77, 
administrative | superin- 
tendent’s instructions to 
Provincial Governors on, 


847 


328-336, Governor-Gener- 
al’s Proclamation on, 822, 
his address to Provincial 
Governors on, 825; reor- 
ganization of, Governor- 
General’s Instructions on, 
319, Imperial Rescript on, 
317. See also under Govy- 
ernment Organization, the 
Government-General. 
GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION 
— Locat AnpmMiINisTRa- 
TION: administrative de- 
centralization, 108, 112; 
administrative divisions, 
111; advisory councils, 
114-119; District Educa- 
tional Bodies, 133; dis- 
tricts, 111; education, 
118, 115; finance, revenue 
and expenditure, 121-125; 
inspection of, 120; intro- 
ductory account of, 109, 
seq.; municipalities, 111, 
115, 116, 126-128; police, 
111; provinces, 111; pro- 
vincial governors, 111; 
sanitation, 112; School 
Associations, 181-133; vil- 
Jages, 111, 128-1381; 
Water Utilization Asso- 
ciations, 135. 
GovERNMENT ORGANIZATION 
— Tue GoveRNMENT- 
GENERAL: affiliated offices 
of, 77, 86, 87, 101, 102; 
Central Council, 87, 88; 
central offices of, 100; 
civil service, appoint- 


348 


ments and salaries, 104, 
105, improvement in posi- 
tion of Korean officials, 
107, pensions, 105-107; 
organic regulations of, 77, 
85, 86, 99; personnel of, 
87, 103; policy of, 78-82, 
93-96; present organiza- 
tion of, 96, seq.; provin- 
cial government, 88, 89; 
reorganization of, 98, 99, 
Imperial Rescript on, 
317. 


Hayasi, Viscount: 54. 
Hosuino, T.: 251. 


IMPERIAL Donation: 66, 
122-125, 201. 
IMPERIALISM: contrasted 


with nationalism, 2-7. 
INDEPENDENT StaTEs: their 
government compared 
with that of dependencies, 
8-17. 
IRRIGATION: 185, 186, 253. 
Iro, Marquis: 54, assassina- 
tion of, 57. 


JAPAN: relations with Ko- 
rea, 36, seq. 

JAPANESE Poticy 1n Korea: 
43, seq., 56, seq., 68, seq. 

JAPANESE Rute IN Korea: 
absence of anti-Korean 
feeling, 27; character of, 
yh 

Jupiciary: 150, seq. 


INDEX 


Keiyo (commonly called 
Seoul): 19, 32. 

Korea: abdication of the 
Emperor, 54; agriculture, 
237 - 259; agricultural 
loans, 74; annexation by 
Japan, 1, 55, passim; 
area under cultivation, 73; 
banking, 294; charitable 
and social works, 81; 
Chinese suzerainty, 36, 
seq.; civil suits, number 
of, instituted in courts of 
first instance, 146; cli- 
mate, 20; commerce, 283; 
crime, state of, 148, 149, 
164, 165; criminal cases, 
sentences imposed in, 
148; currency, 278; debt, 
national, 184; education, 
80, 81, 131-184, 188-208; 
finance, government, 169- 
187; financing of farmers, 
249; fishery, 75, 266; 
flogging, abolition of, 80; 
foreign settlements, aboli- 
tion of, 113; forestry, 74, 
UO; 2017925 Sopendarmerie 
abolished, 80; geography 
of, 18; government of, 
77; government finance, 
169-187; Government- 
General, established, 55, 
organization of, 88-107; 
Government, local, organ- 
ization of, 108-186; im- 
provement in general con- 
ditions, 72; independence 
movement, 56, seq., 68; 


INDEX 349 


Lanp TENvRE: 246. 
Law: sources of, 143. 
Laws AND Courts: appeals 


industry, government en- 
couragement of, 80, 81, 
251, 292; irrigation, 253; 


Japanese policy toward, 
43, seq.; Japanese protec- 
torate established, 49, 
seq.; law, courts of, 152, 
sources of, 143; laws and 
courts, 1387-153; manufac- 
tures, 290; maritime 
transportation, 34; mate- 
rial progress, 73; medical 
and sanitary services, 80, 
81; mining, 75, 273; mis- 
sionaries, their educa- 
tional work, 200, 206; 
opium, control of, 224; 
police system, 154-162; 
population, 23-27, 67 ; pos- 
tal service, 34; prisons, 
162-168; public works, 
80, 81; railways, 27; re- 
lations with China, 86, 
seq., with Japan, 36-65, 
83, with Russia, 2, 47, 48; 
Residency - General, 51, 
64, 83; roads, 31; schools, 
192, seq.; social and 
charitable works, 81; 
streets, 32; taxation, 169, 
175, 179; telegraph ser- 
vice, 86; telephone ser- 
vice, 86; vital statistics, 
231; university, 80, 203. 
Koreans: census of, 23; 
character of, 26, 67; dis- 
tribution by occupation, 
25; living outside Japa- 
nese Empire, 26, 67. 


MANUFACTURES: 


MEDICAL, 


in civil suits, 146, in crim- 
inal cases, 150; civil pro- 
cedure, 145; civil suits, 
number and nature of, 
146; criminal cases, num- 
ber and nature of sen- 
tences, 148, percentage of 
convictions, 149; criminal 
procedure, 147; judiciary, 
150; reforms in, 1388; 
sources of law, 143; under 
native rule, 137, 


Locaut ADMINISTRATION: e€x- 


penditures on, by Govern- 
ment-General, 80; organ- 
ization of, 108-1386; see 
further under Govern- 
ment Organization, Local 
Government. 


develop- 
ment of, 290; government 
expenditures to foster, 
292; industrial products, 
classes of, 298, value of, 
298, 294. 

SANITARY, AND 
SociaL Services: bacteri- 
ological service, 224; Cen- 
tral Health Society, 223; 
death, causes of, 218; epi- 
demics, 217; expansion of 
medical service, 222; ex- 
penditure on, 80, 81, 103; 
health practitioners, 230; 
historical, 212; hospitals, 


350 


227; hygienic inspection, 
223; lepers, 226, 235; 
opium control, 224; sani- 
tary equipment, 219; so- 
cial service, 281; vital 
statistics, 231. 

Mipzuno, Dr. R.: 70. 

Miuitary ADMINISTRATORS: 
their qualities compared 
with those of civil admin- 
istrators, 67. 

Minine: historical, 278; 
present state of industry, 
275; value of metal and 
mineral output, 277. 

Monicipatities: 111, 
116, 126. 


115, 


NATIONALISM: compared 
with Imperialism, 2-7, 
Nationat Dest: 184-187. 


Orium ContTrROL: 224, 
ORIENTAL DEVELOPMENT 
ComMPANy: 296, 303. 


Pource ADMINISTRATION: 
cost of, 161; personnel of 
police force, 159; Train- 
ing Institute for, 156; 
under Japanese rule, 158; 
under native rule, 154. 

Poxitics: increasing inefhi- 
ciency of, as basis of gov- 
ernment, 14-16. 

PopuLATION: census, 23; 
character of, 26, 27, 67; 
distribution by occupation, 
25; Koreans living outside 


INDEX 


Japanese Empire, 26; 
proportion dependent on 
agriculture, 73. 

PostTaL SERVICE: 84. 

Prison ADMINISTRATION: fe- 
male criminals, 164; first 
offenders, 165; flogging 
abolished, 164; juvenile 
crime, 164; prisoners, la- 
bor of, 167, morbidity and 
mortality of, 167, number 
of, 164, pardons of, 166; 
recidivism, 165; training 
of prison officials, 163; 
under Japanese rule, 162; 
under native rule, 162. 


ProvincrAL Bopres: 81; 
schools maintained by, 
202. 

ProvINcEs: names of and 


other details about, 111. 
ProvinciaL GOVERNMENT: 
88, 111. 


QuEEN oF Korea: murder 
of, 41. 


ResipENcY - GENERAL: 51, 
64, 83. 

RusstaN INTRIGUE: 
48. 

Russo-JAPANESE War: 47, 
48, 64. 


2, AT, 


Saito, Viscount, Gover- 
NOR-GENERAL: 8, passim; 
appointment of, 69, 77; 
conciliatory attitude of, 
61, 69; policy of, 72, 198; 


INDEX 351 


Proclamations of, 78, 79, 
822; reforms effected by, 
79, 80. 

SANITARY SERVICE: see un- 
der Medical, Sanitary, 
and Social Services. 

Scuoout Associations: 131, 
202. 

Scuoots: see under Educa- 
tion. 

Srexr-Rute: contrasted with 
dependent rule, 10-17. 

SERICULTURE: 244, 

Severance Mepicat Cot- 
LEGE: 228. 

SociaL SERVICE: 231-236. 

StTaTisTIcAL TABLES: agri- 
cultural products,  esti- 
mated value of, 244; 
Bank of Chosen, business 
of, 801; banking, growth 
of, 76, 288, statistics of, 
299; civil cases in courts 
of first instance, 146; 
commerce, foreign, 284, 
growth of, 76, 283, pro- 
portion of done with vari- 
ous countries, 286; crimi- 
nal cases, sentences im- 
posed in, 148; crops, area 
planted to various, 241, 
value of, 244, yield of 
principal, 243; education, 
public expenditure on, 
210; epidemic diseases, 
218; expenditure and 
revenue of Government- 
General, 174; expenditure 
by Government - General, 


budget estimate of, classi- 
fied according to its ob- 
jects, 80, 183, to foster 
commerce and manufac- 
tures, 292; expenditure 
by provincial and other 
public bodies classified ac- 
cording to its objects, 81; 
expenditure, public, on 
various objects, 97; ex- 
ports, value of by classes, 
287; finance, budgets of 
local, 122; Government- 
General, personnel of, 87, 
103; imports, value of by 
classes, 289; manufac- 
tures, growth of, 76, 283; 
metal and mineral output, 
value of, 277; Mutual 
Credit Associations, con- 
dition and business of, 
805; police force, cost of, 
161, personnel of, 159; 
prisoners, classified ac- 
cording to recidivism, 166, 
number of, 164; provin- 
cial councils, composition 
of, 119; revenue and ex- 
penditure of Government- 
General, 174; school as- 
sociations, number of and 
finance of, 183; schools, 
elementary, number of 
and finance of, 1384, num- 
ber of, 202, number of 
teachers in, 202; sericul- 
tural products, value of, 
245; vital statistics, 231; 
voters, number of, 118. 


352 


Stevens, Mr. D. W.: assas- 
sination of, 56. 


TEACHERS: number of in 
schools, 202, rules for, 
337. 


TELEGRAPH SERVICE: 35. 
TELEPHONE SERVICE: 86. 
TERAUCHI, ViscouNT: 55. 


VILLAGES: 128. 


Wasson, Rev. AuFrep W.: 


INDEX 


on religion in Korean 
schools, 207. 

Water UTILIZATION 
CIATIONS: 135. 

Wetcu, Bisuop: his opinion 
of Governor - General 


Saito, 69. 


Asso- 


Yen: par value of, 73. 

Yr Dynasty: misrule of, 27, 
passim. 

Yr Wan Yone: 56; at- 
tempted assassination of, 
57. 





GEOGRAPHICAL PLACE NAMES 


Japanese Korean 


Provinces 


Chiisei-do Chyung-chyong-dé 


Heian-dé Pyéng-an 
Keiki-do Kyong-geur 
Keish6-d6 Kyong-sang 
Kégen-do Kang-uon 
Kokai-dé Hoang-hat 
Kankyé-di Ham-gyong 
Zenra do Chyol-la 


Provincial Capitals 


Gishi Wi-yyu xs 
Heijo Pyéng-yang 
Kaishi Hai-jyu 
Kanko Ham-heung 
Keizo Kyong-song 
(Seoul) 
Kwoshi Kwang-jyu 
Koshi Kong-jyu 
Ranan La-nam 
Seisht Chyong-jyu 
Shinshit Chin-jyu 
Shunsen Chyung-chyon 
Taikyt Tai-ki 
Zenshii Chyon-jyu 


Principal Seaports 


Chinnampo Chinnampo 


Fusan Pusan 
Gensan Won-san 
Jinsen In-chyong 
(Chemulpo) 
Joshin Song-jin 
Kunsan Kunsan 


Japanese Korean 
Basan Masan 
_ | Moppo Mokpo 
0 | Seishin Chyong-jin 
« | Shin-gisht Shin-wijyu 
iy Toet Tongyeng 


ce 


“: Principal Mountains 


« | Chohaku-san Chyang-paik-san 


Shohaku-san Syo-paik-san 
Tathaku-san Tai-paik-san 


Principal Rivers 
Daidé-ko Tai-dong-gang 


Kan-ko Han-gang 
Kin-ko Keum-gang 
Oryoku-ko § Am-nok-kang 
( Yalu) 
Rakutoé-ko Nak-tong-gang 
Toman-ko Tuiman-gang 
(Tumen) 


Principal Islands 


Kyosat Ko-jyet 

Saishit Chyer-jyu 
(Quelpart) 

Utsuryd Ul-leung 


Principal Bays 


Chinkat Chin-hat 
Koryo Kwang-nyang 
Yeiko Yong-heung 


354 















































Gas 


++++ Boundary of Quntry 
---- Boundary of Province 
B Povinca/ Cites 


@ Principal Towns or 
Seaports 


atte Ray /roads 


First class Roads 
24 ft wide) 
—- Second class Roads 
(8 ft wide) 





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